The Fatty Acids Products

Sesame oil extracted from Sesamum indicum has been used in various Asian traditional medicines to lighten pain in inflammatory conditions of the various tissues such as joints, teeth, skin (D.-Z. C. Hsu, S.-J.; Chu, P.-Y.; Liu, M.-Y. , 2013, ).

A rat model of adjuvant induced arthritis, SO was tested and was capable of reducing the biochemical consequences of oxidative stress: lower plasmatic levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and reduced gamma-glutamyltransferase activity in the joints (Sotnikova, 2009, ). In a rat model of acute arthritis, SO strongly hindered the inflammatory reaction, thinning the inflammatory infiltrate, lowering the levels of inflammatory mediators, hindering the activity of NF-kB within the mast cells and activation of complement system (D.-Z. C. Hsu, S.-J.; Chu, P.-Y.; Liu, M.-Y. , 2013, ). In another rat model of OA, SO alleviated joint pain by inhibiting oxidative aggression via falling the levels of lipids peroxidation, production of superoxide anion and peroxynitrite in the muscles associated with nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor (D.-Z. C. Hsu, P.-Y.; Jou, I.-M. , 2016, ). SO is active in experimentally induced arthritis through its minor constituents which without it is inactive, decreasing the clinically visible joint inflammation, in addition to its serum markers including oxidative stress related molecules, RA markers, inflammatory eicosanoids and cytokines and the activity of hydrolytic enzymes; additionally, bone loss was also diminished (Yadav, 2016, ).

In a study on knee OA patients, orally administrated sesame compared to standard therapy produced better outcomes in terms of objective and subjective manifestations in comparison to standard therapy alone (Eftekhar Sadat, 2013, ). In patients with knee OA, a placebo trial on sesame seed management was associated with a noticed drop in serum levels of malondialdehyde and of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) after two months of treatment and significantly lowered levels of IL-6 after treatment (Khadem Haghighian, 2015,).

The ability of SI to protect from the forward consequences of inflammation and oxidative stress is being due to presence the lignans. It contains sesamin and its hydroxylated counterpart, sesamolin. Similar biological activity has a phenolic compound, sesamol (3,4-methylene-dioxy-phenol) which results from the degradation of sesamolin (Yashaswini, 2017, ). Sesamol has been proven to alleviate joint inflammation, cartilage degradation, and periarticular bone resorbtion in adjuvant-induced arthritis animal model. This action was paralleled by a drop in the level of pro-inflammatory cytokines and in the activity of tissue-destructive enzymes (Hemshekhar, 2013,).

In addition, restorations of the oxidant homeostasis reflected in decreased oxidative stress markers and a boost in the activity of protective enzymes were noticed. The hydroperoxides-scavenging capacity of sesamol makes it able to arrest the oxidation state of iron and consequently the conversion of inactive LOX (Fe2+) to active LOX (Fe3+), which leads to the inhibition of this inflammation-promoting enzyme (Yashaswini, 2017, ).

Whitania somnifera

Withania somnifera (WS) which also entitled ashwagandha, is a powerful anti-osteoarthritic and anti-inflammatory plant (N. B. Singh, M.; de Jager, P.; Gilca, M. , 2011). WS extract was in vitro studied and it was noticed to inhibit liposaccharide S induced synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-alpha, IL-1beta and IL-12) in peripheral and synovial fluid mononuclear cells from rheumatoid arthritis subjects in vitro, but had no effect on IL-6 synthesis (D. A. Singh, A.; Maurya, R.; Naik, S. , 2007,).

The WS extract also showed inhibitory effects on collagenase activity against the degradation of the bovine type I collagen of tendon Achilles, that may be useful in joint disease treatment (Ganesan, 2011). In experimental rats induced arthritis model, WS root powder had shielding effect on bone collagen (Rasool, 2007). The aqueous extract of WS produced significant reduction of scores for pain, stiffness and disability in patient subjects with knee joint inflammation in a randomized, double blind placebo study (Ramakanth, 2016).

Withaferin A, belonging to the steroid class of phytochemicals, is thought to be one of contributor compounds to the beneficial effects of WS in OA subjects (D. A. Singh, A.; Maurya, R.; Naik, S. , 2007,). Withaferin A suppresses NF-kB activation by targeting a crucial cysteine 179 in I_B kinase _, and by inhibition of the NF-kB Essential Modulator/ I_B kinase _ association complex formation, according to molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations studies (Grover, 2010,; Heyninck, 2014,). Neutraceuticals target the NF-kB pathway in arthritis

Camel milk

Camel milk revealed a various anti-inflammatory effect via downregulation of TNF-a, COX-2, iNOS and its upstream effector NF-?B together with enhancing the IL-10 anti-inflammatory pathway. These anti-inflammatory mechanisms are described additionally in further studies which reported that camel milk posses marked anti-inflammatory actions in experimental models (Darwish HA, 2012;), (Zhu WW, 2016), (Rosillo MA, 2014). The master anti-inflammatory component of camel milk is the lactoferrin protein which has been characterized to manage TNF-a, IL-1 and IL-6 in mononuclear cells in vitro and in vivo in response to LPS stimulation. Lactoferrin has been also reported to enhance the levels of IL-10 in a rat model of inflammation (Legrand D, 2005;). The observed downregulation of activated NF-?B p65 in pouch lining confirms the effectual anti-inflammatory performance of camel milk (Ebaid H, 2015). Meanwhile, the observed downregulation of TNF-a, COX-2 and iNOS in arthritic rats is prone to the inhibition of their upstream NF-?B transcription factor (Phillips DC, 2010), (Rosillo MA, 2014).

Glucosamine

Glucosamine is a building unit of long chain glycosaminoglycans correlated to a protein in proteoglycan molecules called aggrecans forming a component of the cartilage matrix. When given exogenously, glucosamine exerts specific effects on cartilage and chondrocytes in osteoarthritis (Rovati LC, 2012). Glucosamine affects gene expression of arthritic cartilage, and its therapeutic effects are linked to its anti-catabolic activities (Reginster JY, 2012). Glucosamine is given in vitro to reduce prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production and inactivation of the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-jB) pathway, thus inhibiting the cytokine intracellular signalling cascade in chondrocytes and synovial cells . In OA, glucosamine induces reversal of the pro-inflammatory and joint-degenerating effects of interleukin-1 (IL-1) (Rovati LC, 2012). Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1b) is a potent pro-inflammatory cytokine produced in high amounts in the OA joint, where it triggers the expression of inflammatory factors such as cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), inducible form of nitric oxide (iNOS), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFa). IL-1b also induces cells to produce moreIL-1b as well as matrix degradation factors, such as metalloproteinases (MMPs) and a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with a thrombospondin type 1 motif, member TSs (ADAMTSs). Most of these genes are under the transcriptional control of NF-kB. Glucosamine at a appropriate concentrations lessens COX-2, iNOS, and microsomal prostaglandin Esynthase-1 (mPGEs1) gene expression and PGE2 synthesis after IL-1b stimulation, suggesting that glucosamine can control the cascade triggered by inflammatory stimuli (Chan PS, 2005;).

Transcription of IL-6, IL-8, IL-24 and TNF-a genes is controlled by multiple transcription factors, such as NF-?B (H. J. Ju Y, Sakamoto K, Ogawa H, Nagaoka I. , 2008; ; Liu H, 2000; ). Attractively, the functions of NF-?B are controlled by OGlcNAc modification (Li Y, 2014) (Ramakrishnan P, 2013;). Furthermore, GlcN inhibits the TNF-a-induced chemokines expression by rat smooth muscle cells via the O-GlcNAc modification of NF-?B p65 (Xing D, 2011).

Moreover, it`s previously revealed that GlcN inhibits the expression of chemokine and adhesion molecule by endothelial cells via O-GlcNAc modification of NF-?B p65 (H. J. Ju Y, Sakamato K, Ogawa H, Nagaoka I., 2008). GlcN had been confirmed to enhance the O-GlcNAc modification of NF-?B p65 but suppresses the expression of cytokines in MH7A cells. These observations likely suggest that theexpression of proinflammatory cytokine genes may be regulated by the mechanism involving the O-GlcNAc-modification of NF-?B.

Chondroitin and glucosamine combination

Mixture of glucosamine and chondroitin sulphate restrained IL-1-induced gene expression of iNOS, COX- 2, m PGEs, and NF-?B in inflamed cartilage which lead to decreased NO and PGE2 production, which are being mediators responsible for the chondrocytes cell death and inflammatory reactions (J. P. C. Chan P. S. , and M. W. Orth, , 2006.; J. P. C. Chan P. S. , G. J. Rosa, and M. W. Orth, “, 2005). Different ways glucosamine or chondroitin sulphate could reduce synthesis of the COX-2 enzyme. One way is the inhibition of the IL-1 beta induced NF-?B pathway by glucosamine results in reduced synthesis of the COX-2 enzyme (Largo R. , 2003) (Gouze JN, 2002;). A further way in which glucosamine inhibits COX-2 activity is the prevention of COX-2 translational N-glycosylation and the facilitation of COX-2 protein turnover (Jang B. C. , 2007). Chondroitin alone reduces the nuclear translocation of NF-?B, which lessen the formation of proinflammatory cytokines IL- 1beta and TNF-alpha and enzymes such as cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) and nitric oxide synthase-2 (NOS-2) (du Souich P. , 2009).

The anti-inflammatory capability of CS was also tested in a rabbit atherosclerosis model, where, CS reduced the proinflammatory molecules C-reactive protein and IL-6 and the expression of MCP-1 and COX-2 in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells as well. It also inhibited NF-?B that is responsible for the induction of inflammatory processes (Herrero-Beaumont G., 2008). Additionally, inflammation mediators activate various cartilage degenerating enzymes. The mRNA expression of such enzymes (MMP-13 and aggrecanases (ADAMTS-5) was reduced in cartilage explants incubated with GlcN