A Look at China’s Cultural Issues

The Past and Present of China: A Historical Perspective

The past and present of China are remarkably similar. What has transpired in Chinese societies over the last 2,000 years seems to be repeating itself. The Ch'ing Dynasty, over 2200 years ago, has reemerged, being echoed by the current regime. In the Ch'in Dynasty, as in Chou, Han, and in the present, Confucianism is an integral part of Chinese social discipline and the way of life. Agriculture was heavily dependent on all regimes, even though China has begun to urbanize. China has faced corruption since the first dynasty. By 475 BC, during the Shang dynasty, the economy was based on agriculture, bronze metallurgy, and urban development. However, as agriculture became more productive, the Shang system forced farmers to pay taxes to support the military.

A Look at China’s Cultural Issues

The common people rejected this system and initiated rebellions, leading the Shang dynasty to become cruel, immoral, and tyrannical as they sought to control everything in the empire. By 221 BC, the Shang dynasty faced its last rebellion, and King Wen founded the Chou dynasty, which believed that heaven granted a mandate to rule, thus sanctioning the political authority of the kings. During this dynasty, laws were based on uniform regulations, and the well-field system was established. Confucianism began with Master Kong (Confucius, 551-479 B.C.), who did not intend to create a new religion but to interpret and revive the unnamed religion of the Zhou (Chou) dynasty, under which many believed the ancient system of religious rule was bankrupt.

Confucius believed that the foundation lay in Zhou religion and statecraft, which he called "rituals" — actions beyond formal sacrifices and religious ceremonies. Confucianism represented the emerging class of administrators and advisers needed to assist the ruling aristocracy in managing complex domestic administration and interstate relations. Confucius affirmed accepted values and norms of behavior in primary social institutions and basic human relationships. His ethical vision ran counter to the legalistic mindset of his time. The Chou dynasty collapsed in 256 BC, and Shih Huang Ti became emperor of the Ch'in (Qin) dynasty, which first unified the nation in 221 B.C.

The Rise and Fall of Dynasties

This dynasty adopted private landholding, and taxation was enforced equally and impersonally. However, wall-building and other public works increased the taxation burden, based on the repression of ideas. This dynasty was anti-intellectual and anti-Confucianism, alienating the literate classes with government policies of thought control, particularly the burning of books. Consequently, in 207 BC, Liu Pang proclaimed himself emperor, founding the Han dynasty. He attempted to follow in the footsteps of the Qin but initially changed some of the unfair laws and taxes. Some laws were abolished, and taxes were reduced to alleviate the tension of the masses and promote the economy.

The Han Empire began to disintegrate as large landholding families exploited the weakness of the imperial government. Various taxes were imposed on farmers to prevent them from monopolizing or becoming too powerful compared to other citizens. The Han dynasty also reintroduced Confucianism as the main school of thought, providing people with jobs and titles based on skills and merit rather than lineage. A test to find the best civil servants was adopted. The Han dynasty faced corruption, as does the present regime. Farmers were and are fed up with the taxes and corruption of the local Communist Party, as highlighted in a New York Times article from January 8.

Control and Rebellion

Regimes from both the past and the present sought total control with the help of strong police forces to suppress disagreements or rebellions. An official from China once stated that the needs of the state outweigh individual needs: "Strength is gained through unity, but the rivers of the state will decide what is the best decision." In the Han dynasty during the Ch'ang period, sacrifice for the state's benefit was new but crucial. From AD 9 to 23, Wang Mang was murdered when he attempted to establish reforms granting equal political, economic, social, and civil rights to every citizen. Similarly, in the present, on January 8, Zhang Huangli was murdered while fighting for his rights.

Commerce and Dissent

At one time in China, commerce benefited the state, but disagreements arose among people who believed the government was exploiting farmers without recognizing or rewarding them. Disagreements in China have continued to grow, according to the New York Times article. The desire for total control and dissent will likely cause more problems in the future. These feelings of dissent contribute to issues in China's agriculture. Violence and problems must be prevented as much as possible. An example of these problems is how the Chinese dynasty fell apart after facing similar situations, indicating that history is repeating itself.

Confucius in Chinese Culture

Recently, interest in Confucius has increased markedly both in China and abroad, with growing study and discussion of this philosophy. Studying Confucius helps one understand Chinese history and culture. From 140 B.C., when Emperor Wudi of the Western Dynasty decided to make it the country's orthodox philosophy, until the founding of the People's Republic in 1949, Confucianism was, with one or two interruptions, the mainstay of Chinese thought. Its influence pervaded all strata of society and penetrated every field of activity, from court politics to the everyday life of the common people. Therefore, to understand China, one must understand Confucius.

Confucianism and Its Lasting Impact

Some of Confucius' ideas may be beneficial and useful today for China and the world. Although he was born 2,500 years ago, his views on morality, education, self-cultivation, harmony, and other subjects could be considered to have lasting value. Some contemporary philosophers regard Confucianism as a key factor in the rapid development of some East Asian countries and regions and a possible solution to many of the problems facing the world today. Confucianism was for a long time one of the main constituents of Chinese culture. In turn, Chinese culture was a major force that determined the orientation of Chinese history.

The Unbroken Cultural Development

The cultural development of the Chinese nation has never been interrupted, a statement that cannot be made about many other ancient civilizations. Although border ethnic groups have ruled all or part of China multiple times, they failed to alter Chinese culture fundamentally. On the contrary, the conquerors were themselves conquered by Chinese culture. This demonstrates that military occupation and political control eventually gave way to cultural superiority. Today, both developed and developing countries face numerous problems, and culture is a significant one. Without an advanced culture, a nation struggles to build up advanced economic or political systems, or to retain them for long, even if they already exist.

References

Confucius. (551-479 B.C.). In The Analects.

New York Times. (2023, January 8). Farmers' frustration with taxes and corruption in China.

Wudi, Emperor. (140 B.C.). Establishment of Confucianism as the country's orthodox philosophy.