The Problem of Violence in Modern Sport

In order to analyze the issue of violence in modern sports and determine whether it has escalated over time, it is essential to first clarify the concept of violence. According to Olweus (1999), violence is defined as the "use of physical force." He characterizes violent behavior as "aggressive behavior where the actor or perpetrator uses his or her own body as an object (including a weapon) to inflict (relatively serious) injury or discomfort upon an individual" (1999:7). However, as the study of violence has evolved, so too has its definition. The World Report on Violence and Health (WRVH, 2002) elaborates that violence is "the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, mal-development, or deprivation." In the context of sports, violence is specifically defined as "behavior which causes harm, occurs outside of the rules of the sport, and is unrelated to the competitive objectives of the sport" (Terry & Jackson, 1985:2). Despite the complexity of defining violence comprehensively, it is evident that there has been a notable increase in both the frequency and severity of violent acts in contemporary sports (Leonard, 1988). Nonetheless, providing a definitive answer to this multifaceted issue remains challenging. For instance, the Australian Government has noted that hard data on the extent of sporting violence is lacking, though sporting associations have claimed that there has not been an increase in violence in recent years (Wenn, 1989). This raises the question of whether the current perception of increased violence is a new phenomenon or if it has always existed in sports, influenced by various factors. This essay will examine both on-field player violence and spectator violence.

Historical Context of Violence in Sports

Historically, violence has been a fundamental aspect of sports, especially evident during the period leading up to the fall of the Roman Empire. Rather than undermining social norms, violence in sports was embraced by both athletes and spectators, becoming an integral part of society. The historian Josephus described the treatment of captives during the Jewish Rebellion, noting that "the number of those destroyed in contests with wild beasts or with one another or in the flames exceeded 2,500" (Grant, 1999: 28). This brutal reality was not met with shock by the Romans; instead, it was normalized. Gladiators, upon joining, swore an oath that included the acceptance of being "burnt by fire, bound in chains, beaten, [or] dying by the sword" (Grant, 1999: 45). Additionally, violence was not limited to sports but was sometimes considered a sport in itself, as evidenced by the violent games in 19th-century Ireland (Conley, 1999). From a sociological perspective, such an attitude toward life, death, and suffering starkly contrasts with contemporary Western values that prioritize human rights and the right to life (Dunning, 2002: 47).

Legal Perspectives on Violence in Sports

To argue that violence in sports is unambiguously prevalent today, it is useful to consider legal perspectives. Numerous professional sports leagues and governing bodies enforce regulations against violent conduct and impose what they deem appropriate punishments. Significant legal cases illustrate the stance of the law regarding violence in sports. For instance, in a 1969 case, the court ruled that an incident was a matter of self-defense but recognized that there is no distinction between sports contests and real-world violence. This was further emphasized in the McSorley (2000) case, where it was established that violence in sports constitutes criminal assault if one unjustifiably and intentionally uses force against another with the intent to cause injury. Such legal frameworks indicate that any actions deemed violent and unnecessary can result in criminal convictions, reinforcing the seriousness of violence in the sporting context. However, the question arises: does the existence of these laws suggest that violence is less prevalent today, or do they reflect a necessary response to increasing levels of violence?

Causes and Motivations Behind Sports Violence

Research has identified various factors contributing to violence in sports, including provocation by opposing teams, encouragement from coaches (Reilly, 1995; O'Brien and Wolff, 1996), peer pressure, the desire to win, and revenge or retaliation (Scher, 1993; Weinstein et al., 1995; Pilz, 1996). These findings suggest that violence is likely to occur when it can influence the outcome of a game, particularly in environments with weak officiating, lenient penalties, and coaches who either fail to control their players or actively encourage rule-breaking (Clark, 1981). Despite an increase in laws and regulatory bodies, violence remains a persistent issue in sports. Additionally, evaluating the emergence of these causes is inherently challenging; one cannot easily ascertain the dynamics within team environments or players' emotions before competitions. Furthermore, societal norms regarding masculinity often pressure male athletes to exhibit aggressive behavior to conform to a macho image (Messner, 1992; Messner and Sabo, 1992; Coakley, 1998).

Contact Sports and Borderline Violence

Another challenge in assessing whether violence in sports has increased is the acknowledgment that "brutal body contact" is an inherent aspect of certain sports (Smith, 1983). Such contact is typically considered acceptable within the established rules of the game, even if similar behavior outside the sporting context would be deemed criminal, such as assault. Athletes who willingly participate in contact sports implicitly accept the likelihood of rough play and potential injury. For example, in cases like that of Stuart Mangan, the discussion surrounding whether violence in sports is increasing becomes more complex, as it raises questions about societal acceptance of violence within sporting norms. Nevertheless, it is crucial to recognize that athletes do not consent to injuries resulting from physical assaults that violate the rules of their respective sports. This distinction emphasizes that violence in sports has defined boundaries that must be respected.

The Concept of Borderline Violence

Additionally, the concept of "borderline violence" (Smith, 1986) warrants examination. This term refers to behaviors that contravene official rules yet are accepted by players and fans as legitimate aspects of the game. Examples include fights in ice hockey or intentional fouls in soccer's penalty area. Such actions rarely face legal repercussions and are often managed through penalties imposed by referees or league officials. A notable instance occurred in 1997 when the Nevada Commission suspended boxer Mike Tyson for biting his opponent (NY Times, 1997). More severe violations, particularly those that contravene both the sport's rules and legal statutes, typically provoke more stringent responses, especially when they lead to serious injuries. Accepting that sports inherently involve a degree of violence complicates the assessment of whether violence is genuinely increasing or if it has always been a part of the sporting landscape.

Violence Among Spectators

Shifting focus to spectator violence, this phenomenon is not new. Instances of fan violence can be traced back to ancient times, such as the Nika riots of 532, which stemmed from chariot racing rivalries (Weir, 1996). Nevertheless, the 1960s and 1970s saw a significant uptick in violence among sports spectators (Dunning, 1993). Despite substantial empirical evidence, finding a straightforward answer to this complex and multifaceted issue remains challenging, particularly due to the failure to differentiate between various types of sports (Baumert, Henderson & Thompson, 1998; Begg et al., 1996; Jackson et al., 2002; Nixon, 1997; Wright and Fitzpatrick, 2006).

Conclusion

In examining the legal frameworks governing sports and the numerous organizations dedicated to monitoring and regulating sports, one might conclude that violence has diminished and will continue to decline. However, if one considers that violence is an intrinsic aspect of sports—especially contact sports that are widely supported and embraced by athletes and fans—it becomes apparent that violence may indeed be on the rise. Ultimately, this issue is not simplistic; no single factor can be analyzed in isolation. This essay contends that whether or not violence in sports is increasing, accurately answering this question has become increasingly difficult, largely due to the influential role of the media. The underlying concern shifts from the frequency or severity of sports violence to the broader societal anxieties regarding moral issues and political discourse.