Human Categorization of Coincidences and Differences

Introduction

Both Karl Marx and Charles Darwin used classification to enhance their ideas, particularly human classification. Marx classifies humans in a society as either part of the bourgeoisie or the proletariat, while Darwin classifies humans based on their gender. Notably, both authors use classification differently. Marx uses it to show class differences among people, whereas Darwin uses it to highlight a larger similarity between humans and other organisms. Therefore, both authors employ classification as a means of comparison to support their theories.

Human Categorization of Coincidences and Differences

In The Communist Manifesto, Marx begins with a bold statement, claiming that “[t]he history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles” (Marx, 1998, p. 62). Here, Marx introduces the idea that throughout history, there have been clashes between the oppressed and the oppressor. One example is feudalism, with its complex hierarchies of lords, vassals, guild masters, and serfs. Marx's theory of history posits that capitalism followed feudalism, but in capitalism, class divisions are simplified to just the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Despite the fall of feudalism, Marx notes that class antagonisms persist, with only “new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle to replace the old ones” (Marx, 1998, p. 63). Thus, even with governmental shifts, class struggle remains constant.

Marx highlights the differences between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Ever since the proletariat emerged, they have been oppressed by the bourgeoisie (Marx, 1998, p. 74). In a bourgeois society, the exploitation of working proletarians sustains the system. Proletarians work in factories and farms, while the bourgeoisie, who own the means of production, benefit from their labor. Each “step in the development of the bourgeoisie was accompanied by a corresponding political advance in that class” (Marx, 1998, p. 65). This society thrives on exploitation, as the bourgeoisie prioritize self-interest and profit, which Marx views as a flaw in modern bourgeois society. Every proletarian advancement supporting society is met with further bourgeois development. Through the relationships between these classes, Marx's classification of oppressed versus oppressor becomes evident, contrasting the bourgeoisie and proletariat based on their relative power. This classification aids his argument for communism by highlighting this disparity and advocating for proletariat interests.

Darwin's Perspective

While Marx supports his argument with distinct class differences, Darwin demonstrates his claim of a common ancestor through evolution by first contrasting males and females and then comparing humans to other organisms. Darwin adopts a traditional view on gender, starting with women. Women differ in “mental disposition, chiefly in her greater tenderness and less selfishness… owing to her maternal instincts” (Darwin, 2001, p. 234). Women are seen as more docile, especially after childbirth, applying these qualities towards their infants as it is in their nature to act kindly and tend to their young. Compared to women, men are more competitive, often leading to selfishness (Darwin, 2001, p. 234). It's interesting how Darwin notes that it is a man's natural birthright to be this way, similar to a woman's affectionate maternal instincts.

At the beginning of the section on page 234, we transition from gender differences to the similarities between humans and other organisms. Darwin believes that sexual selection played a significant role in human nature. He finds this probable due to his analysis of secondary sexual characteristics in lower animals (Darwin, 2001, p. 234). While Darwin acknowledges male and female animals, these animals possess secondary sexual characteristics, suggesting that sexual selection in humans might be related, making humans and animals not so distant after all.

Darwin on Common Ancestry

In chapter 2, Darwin discusses how humans developed from lower forms. He encourages people to acknowledge “descent from a common progenitor, together with their subsequent adaptation to diversified conditions” (Darwin, 2001, p. 193). Since different organisms have similar features with different uses, like the human hand, bat wing, and horse foot, this might suggest a similarity between humans and animals. This is especially true given that the embryos of humans, dogs, seals, and bats look similar and are hard to distinguish. Even with various groups among organisms like humans, small mammals, and aquatic animals, they still share similarities supporting his argument for a common ancestor. Humans may share more than a common ancestor with other animals. Mental qualities are transmitted from humans to dogs, horses, and other domestic animals, including “general intelligence, courage, bad and good temper” (Darwin, 2001, p. 195). This proves that animals and humans are similar not only in structure and makeup but also in intelligence and mental capacities.

Darwin uses categorization to display species differences, ultimately comparing that species with others like it. He breaks down traditional thoughts about human creation. Humans were all made by the same source, yet there is a difference between males and females. Darwin highlights the relative closeness of animals to humans to support his idea of creation through evolution, with everyone descending from a common progenitor.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Marx and Darwin both use classification to support and advance their underlying topics. Marx uses classification to reveal the injustice faced by the proletariat at the hands of the bourgeoisie, promoting his new system of communism in the proletariat's interest. Darwin employs classification to distinguish the similarity between animals and humans, advocating for his controversial idea of evolution.

References

Darwin, C. (2001). The Descent of Man. In P. Appleman (Ed.), Darwin (pp. 175-254). Norton.

Marx, K. (1998). The Communist Manifesto. Signet Classics.