Plato's Theory of Education and Other Theories of Greco-roman Thinkers

Introduction

The Greco-Roman thought, influenced by philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates, emphasized the power of reason and logic in understanding the world and shaping individual lives. Plato's theory of education, for instance, held that individuals should be educated to develop their rational faculties and attain knowledge of the eternal forms and ideals. According to Plato's theory of education should aim at cultivating wisdom, virtue, and a deep understanding of truth. In contrast, the Hebrew thought, rooted in the religious traditions and teachings of the Hebrew Bible, placed greater emphasis on faith, divine revelation, and adherence to religious laws. While the Greco-Roman philosophers sought to uncover truth through logical inquiry and philosophical discourse, the Hebrew thought relied on the authority of scripture, the guidance of religious leaders, and the observance of religious rituals. These fundamental differences in approach between the Greco-Roman thought, with its emphasis on reason, and the Hebrew thought, with its reliance on faith, have shaped the development of Western philosophy and intellectual traditions.

Philosophers like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle belong to the line of Greco-Roman thinkers while philosophers like Philo of Alexandria and Maimonides were the prominent exponents of the Hebrew Thought. Even philosophers like Thomas Aquinas and Saint Augustine form a part of the Hebrew philosophers as they based their thoughts on the Bible which was the core of the Hebrew Thought.

Socrates was the first philosopher of the Greco-Roman Thought. Socrates brought his idea of questioning every small or word that could be used in deciphering and interpreting meaning of everything. In this rudimental aspect, the Greeks exemplified the importance of logic and reason and that for understanding any kind of fact questioning needed to be done so that it could be broken into small fragments. This made the process of learning easier and more fathomable. The Greek thought shall include the philosophers mentioned above and the four schools of Roman which are the Stoics, the Sceptics, the Epicureans and the Cynics. These four schools of thought also emphasized on the importance of logic and reason. For example, the Sceptics doubted everything and believed only in reason and logic and that the truth is uncertain. Also, the stoics believed that virtue can be obtained only through intellect, logic, hard work and practice. They were pantheists and did not let the faith dictate their actions unlike the Hebrews and the Jewish thinkers who based each of their actions on the commands of the God.

Hebrew thinkers like Philo of Alexandria, Maimondes, St. Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas. There are many other Hebrew thinkers but I will be dealing with these thinkers. I will explain how these thinkers depend on the rule of god or the theocratic rule. These thinkers relied on the Bible and how God dictates what needs to be done through the Bible and what are the sayings of the God. They also rely on Church which guides the actions of all the people. They had a faith in the Church but did not base their thoughts on reason but just on faith in religion.

I will be explaining the thought of the Greco-Roman thinkers in the 2nd chapter and later on the thought of Hebrew thinkers and in the final chapter I will be making the comparison among the thinkers of both the thoughts and how there is difference between reason and faith.

Greco-Roman Thinkers

Greco-Roman thought comprises of the Greek as well as Roman philosophers who based their researches and thought processes on reason and logic and not on blind faith in God. They did not simply rely on the verdicts and commands of the gods that were supposedly given to the prophets or the kings. Such philosophers had a great liking for intellect and logic and disregarded anything that did not have proper backing or grounds. The first of the Greek philosophers includes Socrates, his disciple Plato and succeeding him is Aristotle.

Socrates' Theories

Socrates was a philosopher who questioned nuances of each and every thing. He was a person who had a great knack of applying logic to every problem that he faced or anything that he studied. He had two disciples: Xenophon and Plato. These two disciples have written on the works of Socrates and they are the one who had turned Socrates’ speech and knowledge into tangible material as books. Socrates has practiced and developed the method of dialectics although he is not the one to introduce dialectics in its proper form. The Platonic Socrates continuously maintains that he knows nothing, and is only wiser than others in knowing that he knows nothing. He feels that no man sins wittingly, and so only knowledge is needed to make men perfectly virtuous. He establishes a close connection between knowledge and virtue. Unlike the Christians, pure heart is required to be virtuous and that such a pure heart can be present in an ignorant as well as the learned. The Greek thought is diametrically opposite of this. Socrates emphasized on the method of discussion as a measure of extracting the truth in any situation. Socrates strives for logical consistency and also focuses on ethics while going for such logical and reasoned arguments. Socratic experiences and dialogues have found a mention in Plato’s Apology, Aristotle’s Poetics, Xenophon’s Memorabilia and Symposium. 

Plato's Theory of Education and Justice

Plato was the disciple of Socrates and is famous for incorporating his thoughts into his (Plato’s) own writings in the form of Apology, Phaedo, Crito etc. Plato has been famous for giving his theory of knowledge, theory of education, theory of justice and theory of reality as well. Plato is a philosopher who has given great emphasis on the virtue of knowledge and he equates virtue with knowledge. He does not give importance to the theocratic rule or rule through church. He relies on pure knowledge.

Theory of Reality of Plato was based on the Socratic Doctrine of Reality. In this doctrine, Plato explains that reality inheres only in the ideas of the things and that beauty could exist without a beautiful thing. Plato in his ideal state wants that the ruler of such a state should be a philosopher king and as that would enhance and help in improving the condition of the state. Also, such a philosopher King would take wise decisions and be rational in his approach as he would think by his mind and will have no other external influence as such. This principle of philosopher King was also important as it would remove the flawed method of sortition for election in Athens. 

Theory of Knowledge

His theory of knowledge equates knowledge to virtue or vice versa and indicates that only knowledge makes a person virtuous and nothing else. On the basis of this theory only, he gives the theory of justice and theory of education. Also, he explains this theory through the example of allegory of the Cave, the Divided Line and the example of Charioteer.

Theory of Education

Plato in his theory of education underlines the different stages at which different types of education shall be inculcated in children and then the adults. His theory extends to people ageing from 0 to 50 and more. His theory is very logical despite some fallacies. This is a clear indication of the importance given to reason and logic and how important it is to inculcate and infuse knowledge among the people from their inception.

Theory of Justice

His theory of justice is an indication of how justice can be attained in a society. It answered several seminal questions like what justice and injustice is and by whom justice can be done. The theory said that justice is from within that is it is natural. He made a logical division of the body into three aptitudes: reason, spirit and appetite. On these 3 divisions he also gave three principles of his theory which were functional specialization, harmony and non-interference.

Wisdom of Aristotle

Aristotle is the disciple of Plato and unlike Plato he is a realist who does not accept the idealist forms as Plato argues for. Aristotle has put forward his views on property and slavery and has given the classification of states which has been of seminal importance to the study of political science. He has been the most logical of all the Greek thinkers as his ideas are the most practicable and applicable in the real times.

Views on Property and Slavery

Aristotle regards possession of property in more than one ways. He says that the property is important as it is an indication of self-interest and such interest shall in the long run be beneficial for the society. He supports the private property as an essential instrument of good life. Also, he says that property has existed for a long time and to discard it now would be wrong. Finally, he says that ownership of property also gives a sense of civic responsibility to the individuals. With regards to slaver, he says that they are a kind of inanimate property and such property should be kept with the people. The argument put forward is that men are by nature unequal and that nature ordains that the superior should rule over the superior. Also, that the slave holds the middle position between man and animals.

Classification of States

Aristotle has classified states into 6 types which are monarchy, tyranny, aristocracy, oligarchy, polity and democracy. He divides such classifications into two different categories qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative concept includes the pure and perverted form while the quantitative aspect includes the number of people ruling at the centre. The changes in the governments take place due to revolutions by the people if the government gets corrupted. The best thing about Aristotle is his dynamic approach as he accepts changes unlike Plato who is utopian in his approach. Aristotle, in relation to this, has given a theory of revolution as well as a supplement to it.

Four Schools of Thought

The four schools of thought appointed after the coming of Alexander which were the Cynics, Sceptics, Stoics and Epicureans. These schools of thought give special importance to logic and reason and that specially the Sceptics doubt everything and believe it only after it is based on reason and senses and finds the absolute truth in that respect. Also, the other three schools of thought emphasize on use of senses and reason and not on faith in religion or God or the Church.

Hebrew Thought

Hebrew thought is based on the Hebrew Bible or the Hebrew Scriptures (Latin: Biblia Hebraica). The Hebrew Bible is also known as Tanakh or Torah. The Hebrew Thought relies on the Bible for all its actions and commitments. The most important concept of the Hebrew faith is the purity of mind and soul and such purity should be based on the writings in the Bible. The Hebrew Bible is part of the Old Testament which is the first part of the Christian Bible and it is the Bible before the coming of Christ. This thought is primarily based on the faith in the Bible.

Genesis of the Bible

The Hebrew Bible can be divided into parts first the Primeval history (Chapters 1-11) and second the Ancient History (Chapters 12-50). The Primeval History talks about concepts of the nature of the deity and of humankind's relationship with its maker: God creates a world which is good and fit for mankind .The Ancestral History tells of the prehistory of Israel, God's chosen people.  Genesis has been interpreted as the building of the certain cardinal Christian beliefs. The Original Sin becomes a very important factor in the crucifixion of Christ as he is the one who takes the entire curse and puts himself up as a sacrifice for the humanity. 

St. Augustine of Hippo

St. Augustine of Hippo is the one who has developed the concept of Original Sin through his book the City of God. He is a philosopher who has complete faith in the Church and the Bible and who gives Church an authority over the state and asks the Church to guide the people and for saving the Christians and the Christianity if any persecution is required he permits such persecution. He is a person who has blind faith in theocracy and accepts whatever the Bible says or the Church commands.

Principles of Faith

1. Belief in the existence of the Creator, who is perfect in every manner of existence and is the Primary Cause of all that exists.
2. The belief in God's absolute and unparalleled unity.
3. The belief in God's non-corporeality, nor that He will be affected by any physical occurrences, such as movement, or rest, or dwelling.
4. The belief in God's eternity.
5. The belief that God communicates with man through prophecy.
6. The belief in the primacy of the prophecy of Moses our teacher.
7. The belief in the divine origin of the Torah.
8. The belief in the immutability of the Torah.
9. The belief in God's omniscience and providence.
10. The belief in divine reward and retribution.
11. The belief in the arrival of the Messiah and the messianic era.
12. The belief in the resurrection of the dead.

In his Guide for the Perplexed, he puts forward a negative theology in which he describes God through negative descriptions for example he says that the statement God is wise should not be uttered instead God is not ignorant. Another example is that instead of saying God exists say that God is not non-existent Also, given that he is a Jewish philosopher and has a strong belief in the Bible, he agrees with Aristotle in the fact that the use of logic is the right way of thinking. Maimondes explains the doctrine of creation through his statements in the Guide as “Know that with a belief in the creation of the world in time, all the miracles become possible and the Law becomes possible”.

Existence of Evil and Good in the World

Maimonides wrote on theodicy (the philosophical attempt to reconcile the existence of a God with the existence of evil). He believes that people are guided by higher purpose, and there are those who are guided by physical qualities and must make effort to find the higher purpose with which to guide their actions.

Maimondes’ despite being strong supporter of the faith in the Bible and expressing faith in it does not disregard or ignore reason and logic. Like Aristotle he regards logic and reason as important. Because of his blend of Aristotelian ideas and Biblical faith he has a great influence on Thomas Aquinas. Maimondes’ works include: Commentary of Mishnah, Guide for the Perplexed, Art of Cure, Medical Aphorisms, Discourse on the Explanation of Fits and his Treatise on Logic. His Treatise on Logic illustrates the essentials of Aristotelian logic to be found in the teachings of the great Arabic philosophers such as Avicenna and, above all, Al-Farabi, 'the Second Master'. The work includes philosophical terms to a summary of higher philosophical topics in 14 chapters.

Conclusion

The Greco-Roman and Hebrew thoughts have differences in their foundations as the former is based on reason and logic while the latter is primarily based on faith in the Bible. It can be seen through the philosophies of people like Socrates, Aristotle, Plato and the four schools of thought after the coronation of Alexander. The philosophy of Socrates’ influences the processes of dialectics or the method of questioning each and every fragment of thoughts. Plato, though an idealist, has also emphasized on reason, knowledge and logic to base every action. Plato’s theory of education, knowledge and justice clearly emphasize how and in what ways intellect and logic crucial to the understanding of any kind of knowledge. His theory of education though a bit unrealistic is very much logical as a consequence given a lot of importance. Also, Aristotle as he is known as the father of Political Science clearly shows why this pseudonym has been assigned to him. He is a realist and his views on property and slavery and the classification of states are very much practicable. His views on property are the most apt reasons to combat communism of property that Plato wishes for. In contrast to them, the Hebrew Philosophers base their thoughts and philosophies on the interpretation of and belief in Bible. The Genesis of bible clearly speaks about the relationship of humankind with the creator and how God moves the people through his commands and directions. Philo of Alexandria also focuses on the text of Bible and sees Bible as the only source of truth and the absolute truth. He relies only on Bible and does not imply logic and reason. Maimonides is a philosopher who has delved into philosophy through his 13 principles of faith and his doctrine of creation through which he tried to establish faith in the people for the God and primarily the Church and the Bible. He speaks about the co-existence of good and evil in society with special emphasis on God and which side dominates. He is also greatly influenced by the Aristotelian logic and influence. Maimondes is a philosopher who has combined logic and reason with faith in the Bible and so as tried to bring a convergence in Greek and Hebrew thought. On the same line, Thomas Aquinas has also worked on such a conglomeration of ideas and practices.

References

1. Bertrand Russell, History of Western Philosophy, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., New York, Reprint 2017.
2. Dr. J .C. Johari, Political Thought: Modern, Recent & Contemporary, Metropolitan Book Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2012.
3. Subrata Mukherjee and Sushila Ramaswamy, A History of Political Thought: Plato to Marx, Eastern Economy, 2nd Ed., 2012.
4. S. R. Simon, Moses Maimonides: medieval physician and scholar, Arch Intern Med., (1999).
5. Dianne Bergeant, Genesis: In the Beginning, Liturgical Press, 2013, ISBN 9780814682753.
6. Barry L. Bandstra, Reading the Old Testament, Cengage Learning, 2008, ISBN 0495391050.
7. Maren R. Niehoff, Philo of Alexandria: An Intellectual Biography, Yale University Press, 2018 ISBN 030017523X.