The Extent to What America Was a Land of Freedom for Afro-americans from The Years 1871 to 1965

At the conclusion of the Civil War in 1865, America faced numerous challenges. The Emancipation Proclamation, issued two years earlier, had declared freedom for all enslaved individuals. This monumental step was seen as a gateway to a new life for African Americans; however, the reality was far more complex and fraught with difficulties. Although “Lincoln came to see the Proclamation as the only alternative God left to emancipation being swept off the table entirely,” true freedom for black Americans remained elusive for many years to come.

The Reality of Freedom for African Americans (1871-1965)

In the years following their emancipation, African Americans encountered a surge in racism that placed their lives in jeopardy. Once freed, they found themselves adrift in a society that still viewed them as inferior. They had two choices: remain in the South, where conditions had only worsened, or migrate north in search of better opportunities. While the North offered marginally improved living conditions and reduced racism, starting anew presented its own set of challenges.

Many African Americans found themselves confined to urban ghettoes—places that were often unsettling for children but fostered a growing sense of community. Just as they began to experience some positive changes, the Jim Crow Laws were enacted, enforcing racial segregation across Southern states. These laws directly contradicted the 15th Amendment, which granted voting rights to men of color, and state governments found ways to effectively disenfranchise black voters.

Freedom Fighters and Activism

Between 1871 and 1965, numerous freedom fighters emerged in support of African American rights. Prominent figures included Rosa Parks, who bravely defied segregation laws, igniting a mass movement for change that culminated in desegregation on public transportation. Organizations like the NAACP, CORE, and SCLC led non-violent protests, often comprising both black and white members advocating for civil rights.

Despite legal advancements and a growing movement for equality, one must question whether America truly represented a land of freedom for African Americans. To explore this question, this essay will focus on three critical areas: freedom, legislative rights, and education.

Freedom: A Complex Definition

Freedom for African Americans was defined by two pivotal legal acts. The first, the Emancipation Proclamation, issued on January 1, 1863, granted freedom to enslaved individuals in the Southern states. The second, the 13th Amendment, passed in 1965, extended freedom to all black Americans. Freedom is generally understood as “the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants,” but this definition did not accurately reflect the reality for African Americans between 1871 and 1965. The ongoing struggle for equality demonstrated that abolitionists remained active and militant, advocating for equal rights long after emancipation.

Following the initial proclamation of freedom, a series of laws emerged that further oppressed African Americans. The Jim Crow laws, developed between 1887 and 1891, mandated racial segregation in public facilities, including schools, hospitals, and restaurants. For instance, in Georgia, separate parks were designated for blacks and whites, while Louisiana enforced segregation in medical facilities, and Alabama implemented separate restrooms in workplaces.

Job segregation also persisted, with white individuals occupying skilled, better-paying positions while black individuals were relegated to unskilled, lower-paying jobs. Eight states formalized segregation on public transport, waiting rooms, and restrooms, extending to schools and prohibiting interracial marriage. These laws stripped African Americans of opportunities that could have allowed them to lead normal lives.

The Impact of Plessy v. Ferguson

In 1896, the Supreme Court's ruling in Plessy v. Ferguson established a legal precedent that would shape race relations in America for the next six decades. Homer Plessy, a black American from New Orleans, was arrested for refusing to vacate a seat designated for whites. His argument centered on the infringement of his rights and the unconstitutionality of the Jim Crow laws.

Unfortunately, Plessy lost the case, and the Supreme Court upheld the legality of segregation as long as facilities were deemed “equal.” This landmark decision, known as “separate but equal,” perpetuated racial discrimination and created a life of contradictions for African Americans. Plessy contended that the Fourteenth Amendment could not have been intended to abolish distinctions based on color or to enforce social integration on unsatisfactory terms.

While Plessy lost his case, his actions contributed to the formation of the NAACP, which later leveraged arguments from Plessy's case in the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education ruling, which ultimately overturned the “separate but equal” doctrine. Historian Michael J. Klarman notes that Plessy’s actions, while not directly expanding segregation, played a role in shifting public opinion.

Violence and Resistance

The struggle for civil rights was often met with violent resistance. A study by Toinay and Beck revealed that between 1882 and 1930, approximately 2,805 people were killed by lynch mobs in ten Southern states, with around 2,500 of the victims being black Americans. In response to such violence, the NAACP was formed in 1909, partly as a reaction to the Springfield Riots, which resulted in the destruction of homes and the murder of two black men.

The NAACP emerged as a powerful organization, comprising both black and white members, advocating for civil rights. In its first year, the NAACP successfully lobbied for the state of Oklahoma to pass a constitutional amendment eliminating literacy tests for voters whose grandparents had been eligible to vote.

Despite facing numerous challenges, the NAACP's efforts raised public awareness of civil rights issues. The organization's work highlighted the necessity of aggressive action to secure full citizenship rights for African Americans.

Legislative Rights and the Reconstruction Era

Upon their emancipation, African Americans found themselves bereft of rights, facing new forms of oppression. While they gained some legal rights, such as the ability to marry and own property, they were still barred from serving on juries or testifying against whites. Many African Americans lived in poverty, often forced to rent land from former slave owners.

During the Reconstruction era, which lasted from 1865 to 1877, African Americans began to exercise their rights as citizens. The NAACP played a crucial role in challenging discriminatory laws, achieving notable victories such as the Supreme Court's ruling in Guinn v. U.S., which declared grandfather clauses unconstitutional. The NAACP also launched an anti-lynching campaign to increase public awareness of racial violence.

Although the Reconstruction era saw some progress, systemic racism persisted. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 sought to end discrimination in public accommodations and transportation, but entrenched prejudices made implementation challenging. Over time, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, introduced by President John F. Kennedy and passed by his successor, Lyndon B. Johnson, aimed to eradicate segregation and discrimination in public places.

Education: A Path to Freedom

Education remained a significant barrier for African Americans following their emancipation. Despite the establishment of schools for black children, access to quality education was severely limited. By 1896, the “separate but equal” doctrine denied black children entry to high-achieving white schools.

In the 1920s and 1930s, black children attended schools with fewer resources and shorter academic years compared to their white peers. The NAACP worked tirelessly to challenge these disparities, leading to landmark cases such as Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, which declared school segregation unconstitutional.

Another pivotal moment occurred in 1957 when nine black students, known as the Little Rock Nine, attempted to integrate a previously all-white school in Arkansas. The governor deployed National Guard troops to prevent their entry, but federal intervention ultimately allowed them to attend school. Despite facing hostility and discrimination, their perseverance marked a significant step toward desegregation.

Conclusion: A Land of Freedom?

In conclusion, America was not a land of freedom for African Americans from 1871 to 1965. Although progress was made, the journey was fraught with challenges and setbacks. African Americans faced systemic discrimination, violence, and social injustice even after the abolition of slavery. Their struggle for civil rights was met with resistance, and the promise of freedom remained unfulfilled for many. The definition of freedom—“the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants”—did not apply to African Americans, who continuously fought for their rights in a society that often denied them.

References

• Klarman, Michael J. "From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality." Oxford University Press.
• Morris, Aldon D. "The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement." Free Press.
• Verney, Keven. "Black Reconstruction in South Carolina and Mississippi." Cambridge University Press.
• Riches, William. "The Civil Rights Movement: Struggle and Resistance." Macmillan International Higher Education.