The Issue of Double Consciousness and Female Oppression in The Works of Janice Mirikitani and Louise Erdrich

The exploration of identity and female oppression is a profound theme in the literary works of Janice Mirikitani and Louise Erdrich. This essay delves into how these authors portray these interconnected issues, particularly through the lens of their respective ethnic backgrounds—Japanese Americans and Native Americans. By examining the historical contexts of their experiences, we can better understand how stereotypes perpetuated by white American culture have limited the choices available to these communities.

Historical Context and Ethnic Identity

In the years leading up to World War II, Japanese-American writers who immigrated in the late nineteenth century began to express the experiences of first-generation immigrants, known as Issei. The passing of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882 heightened awareness among Japanese Americans regarding their identity, particularly among the Nisei, or second-generation Japanese Americans. This period saw the emergence of internment literature that reflected the ambivalence Americans felt towards their own nation during wartime.

Janice Mirikitani, a prominent Japanese American poet, was born in Stockton, California, in 1941. During World War II, her family was among the 110,000 Japanese Americans interned in concentration camps. Mirikitani's academic journey at the University of California, Los Angeles, was marked by a struggle with her ethnic identity, which would later inform her poetry.

As the director of the Glide Memorial United Methodist Church, Mirikitani dedicated her efforts to aiding the poor and combating racism. Her literary contributions include participation in anthologies such as "AYUMI," which features a blend of writings and imagery in a bilingual format, and various periodicals like "Asian American Heritage." Her work consistently advocates for social and political activism, emphasizing that poetry can serve as a vehicle for addressing harsh realities. Through her writing, Mirikitani confronts the traumas of war, institutional racism, and the challenges faced by women, all while reflecting on her own struggles with identity.

Breaking Stereotypes and Cultural Representation

Mirikitani's commitment to challenging racial stereotypes is evident in her major collections, including "Awake in the River" (1978), "We, the Dangerous" (1995), and "Shedding Silence" (1987). These works confront racism and internment while drawing connections to themes of sexual violence. Her poetry is characterized by a raw and confrontational style that reflects her personal experiences and the socio-political landscape of the 1960s and 1970s, a time when marginalized communities began to assert their cultural identities.

Similarly, Louise Erdrich, a member of the Chippewa tribe, explores the challenges faced by Native Americans. Born in Little Falls, Minnesota, in 1954, Erdrich's literary career gained momentum in the 1980s with the publication of her short stories. Her education at Dartmouth College coincided with the establishment of a Native American studies department, which inspired her exploration of her ancestry and its influence on her writing.

In her novel "Love Medicine," published in 1984, Erdrich weaves together narratives from three Chippewa families, set against the backdrop of an Indian Reservation in the 1930s. This novel illustrates the struggles of Native peoples, who faced wars, land dispossession, and the subsequent challenges of poverty and disease. The reservations, known for their high mortality rates and chronic unemployment, serve as a poignant reminder of the cultural destruction inflicted upon Native communities.

Assimilation and Identity Formation

The U.S. government's attempts to assimilate Native Americans into Anglo-American culture often resulted in the erosion of their traditional practices and beliefs. The question of how much Native culture was retained amid these pressures is addressed in Erdrich's "Saint Marie," a chapter in "Love Medicine." Here, the protagonist, Marie Lazarre, grapples with her identity as she navigates the expectations of both her Native heritage and Christian values.

Mirikitani and Erdrich’s works reflect the complexities of double consciousness, a term coined by W.E.B. Du Bois to describe the internal conflict experienced by oppressed individuals. This concept is particularly relevant for minority women who navigate the intersections of race and gender. Both authors illustrate how these dual identities shape their characters' experiences and sense of self.

Gender and Racial Oppression

In U.S. society, both Asian American and Native American women face a unique set of challenges stemming from racism and sexism. This double jeopardy places them in a vulnerable position, often exacerbated by societal expectations and stereotypes. Mirikitani’s personal experiences with abuse and marginalization inform her poetry, allowing her to speak powerfully for those who have been silenced.

In "Breaking Tradition," a poem dedicated to her daughter, Mirikitani examines the lives of Japanese American women across three generations. She reflects on the struggle to balance traditional values with the pressures of assimilation into white culture. Through vivid imagery of empty and quiet rooms, she conveys the isolation and oppression faced by women in her community.

Erdrich’s female characters in "Love Medicine" also assert their agency and fight for their rights, often forming alliances despite rivalries. Marie Lazarre exemplifies a strong, independent woman who defies traditional expectations, demonstrating that women can carve out their own identities and roles within their families and communities.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the works of Janice Mirikitani and Louise Erdrich provide valuable insights into the experiences of double minorities navigating the complexities of identity and oppression. Both authors shed light on the intersections of race and gender, revealing how these factors contribute to the struggles faced by Asian American and Native American women. Their literary contributions continue to inspire and empower, encouraging a deeper understanding of the challenges and triumphs of marginalized communities.

References:

• Du Bois, W.E.B. "The Souls of Black Folk." Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co., 1903.
• Erdrich, Louise. "Love Medicine." New York: Holt, 1984.
• Mirikitani, Janice. "We, the Dangerous." San Francisco: Aunt Lute Books, 1995.
• Mirikitani, Janice. "Breaking Tradition." In "We, the Dangerous." San Francisco: Aunt Lute Books, 1995.