Analyzing The Evolution of Liberalism as an Ideology

Introduction

My assignment will look at what makes liberalism an ideology. Through the years liberalism has evolved taking on new ideas and becoming a fundamental part of human life. This assignment will look focus on two aspects: what is an ideology? And liberalism. The liberalism aspect will focus on various forms of liberalism that have appeared through time. The Enlightenment was a key period in the eighteenth century were liberals wrote important writings on liberty, this assignment will explore the key Enlightenment thinkers who formed their own view on liberalism. My work, will also look at John Locke and Adam Smith, the importance of their writings and how they inspired future liberalists. Adam Smith went onto inspire classical liberalism, this assignment will look at classical liberalism and how it went onto inspire a new form of liberalism call modern or social liberalism. Liberalism has evolved slowly through time and this work will explore the changes that liberalism has adopted along the way. Research for this assignment will establish what makes liberalism an ideology.

According to the Oxford Dictionary an ideology is “A system of ideas and ideals, especially one which forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy.” (Oxford Dictionaries, 2015). In the world of politics, political parties often build their core around an ideology, however this is not always the case. Through time an ideology can change depending on one’s interpretation of that ideology. Political parties that base themselves on an ideology, through time can adopt a completely different ideology to the one they started with.

The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a period in Europe during the 18th century, where philosophers, social scientists and scientists championed the doctrine of reason and individual progress. In his essay “What is Enlightenment?” (1784), the German philosopher Immanuel Kant summed up the era’s motto in the following terms: “Dare to know! Have courage to use your own reason!” (History.com, 2009). Barbara Goodwin author of Using Political Ideas writes, “Liberalism, utilitarianism and classical economics were all part of a homogeneous intellectual worldview which developed at the time of the Enlightenment.” (Goodwin, B. 2014, p. 54). The Enlightenment produced many political thinkers including Francis Bacon, John Locke, René Descartes, Adam Smith and Sir Isaac Newton.

John Locke (1632-1704) was an English political philosopher and theorist. Locke made central contributions to the development of liberalism and laid much of the groundwork for the Enlightenment. “His political theory of government by the consent of the governed to protect life, liberty and estate” (History.com, 2009). Locke believed in natural rights which are the conditions we need in order to protect and preserve our lives under the natural laws given to us by god. These laws give us the right to liberty and the acquisition of property without interference. (Gray, J. 1995, p. 13-14). Locke argued for rights of individuals, limiting the power of the government to ensure greater freedom for citizens, a constitutional government rather than arbitrary government and tolerance of most views and religions.

Liberalism is a “political doctrine that takes protecting and enhancing the freedom of the individual to be the central problem of politics. Liberals typically believe that government is necessary to protect individuals from being harmed by others; but they also recognise that government itself cannot pose a threat to liberty. (Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2015). Liberalism stems from the early Enlightenment thinkers of the 17th and 18th century, political philosophers such as John Locke considered to be the ‘father of classical liberalism’ and Adam Smith also nicknamed the ‘father of modern economics’. David Johnston one of the writers of the Encyclopaedia of Political Theory states “The Enlightenment produced a new branch of liberal thinking that soon came to compete with and sometimes overshadow its original growth.” (Johnston, D. 2010, p. 796-802). Johnston makes an interesting point in regards to Locke and other early Enlightenment thinkers that their liberal constitutionalist stance has been replaced in parts by a rationalist faith that envisaged the accomplishment of ambitious social objectives. (Johnston, D. 2010, p. 796-802). The Liberalism that early Enlightenment thinkers wrote about has clearly evolved through time as each individual adds his or her own interpretation and view. “Liberalism is the label for a diverse family of views and practices that began to take shape in England and Europe in the wake of the Protestant Reformation, emerged in several countries as a powerful force in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and now dominates political discourse throughout much of the world.” (Johnston, D. 2010, p. 796-802).

Adam Smith was a Scottish philosopher, economist and is perhaps best known as the author for An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (Wealth of Nations 1776). During the 18th century national wealth was judged on a nations stock of gold and silver. Imports were seen as damaging because they had to be paid for, which required giving up wealth. This is an old view of economics, which kept countries in control with protectionist rules to prevent the spending of wealth. (Adam Smith Institute, 2015). Smith’s book Wealth of Nations 1776 called for governments to encourage the economic activity of individuals through a legal framework that protects both individual rights and interests. “His ideas drew heavily on liberal and rationalist assumptions about human nature and made a powerful contribution to the debate about the desirable role of government within civil society.” (Heywood, A. 2012, p. 47). “Originally developed by philosophical radicals like Jeremy Bentham and non-liberal thinkers such as Henri de Saint-Simon, the idea of a regulatory state was especially attractive to those liberals who feared that individuals’ rightful entitlements might be threatened by social and economic inequality.” (Johnston, D. 2010, p. 796-802).

Classical liberalism emerged in the nineteenth century following the writings of Adam Smith. This form of liberalism values limited government, the freedom of individuals, including the freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly and markets. However classical liberalism has a somewhat negative conception of freedom. The absence of constraint: classical liberals believed there should be some constraint on individuals by the state, which they saw as a necessary evil. Political Ideologies by Andrew Heywood states “Classical liberalism – A tradition within liberalism that seeks to maximize the realm of unconstrained individual action, typically by establishing a minimal state and a reliance on market economics.” (Heywood, A. 2012, p. 26). Classical liberalism is composed of a mix of ideas and strategies about how to acquire or defend liberty. There is a certain unity in classical liberalism that is clearly committed to individualism. Individualism can be described as political or moral doctrine that celebrates the value of individuality among the human race. (Vincent, A. 1992, p. 29). John Stuart Mill an English nineteenth century philosopher paints his own picture of liberty that justifies the values of freedom and individuality. On the subject of liberty, Mill states “that the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.” (Heywood, A. 2012, p. 29). Mill was a champion of utilitarianism a theory of maximizing the utility of individuals or society developed by Jeremy Bentham.

In the modern world liberalism has evolved into a new form which is called modern or social liberalism. John Hobson, Thomas Hill Green and Leonard Hobhouse are the new liberals that spawned this new wave of liberalism. These new liberals did not call for free enterprise after seeing the injustice and poverty that a free market economy caused. New liberal argued about the clear disparities of wealth were unjust and needed to be redistributed without undermining the market system. This new liberalism recognized that wealth should be spread more evenly for the sake of genuine freedom, equality and justice. (Vincent, A. 1992, p. 42).

“Welfare state – a state which goes beyond the provision of minimal services such as internal and external security and provides other services, such as health, education and pensions – generally associated with socialism but also with welfare liberalism.” (Goodwin, B. 2014, p. 467). The twentieth century gave rise to state intervention in most western and developing countries. This intervention took the form of social welfare, an attempt by government to provide support for its citizens by overcoming poverty, disease and illiteracy. (Heywood, A. 2012, p. 56). Even classical liberalist John Stuart Mill wrote about the need for some form of measures to increase welfare, despite opposing state intervention. According to author Barbara Goodwin, “the landmark in the adaptation of liberal thought to the growth of the welfare state was Hobhouse’s book Liberalism (1911)” (Goodwin, B. 2014, p. 63). The welfare policy of 1909 by liberal Lloyd George Chancellor of the Exchequer, created a contributory pension scheme, sickness and unemployment benefits for the lowest paid workers. Modern liberals believe that if particular individuals or groups are disadvantaged by their social circumstances, then it is the state’s responsibility to reduce or remove these disadvantages in order to create equal opportunities within society. (Heywood, A. 2012, p. 56). These measures can be seen as intervention by the state, however Leonard Hobhouse argued that “modern liberals could justify the extension of public control on humane grounds. The doctrine of liberty should not prevent the general will from acting, were it must, for the common good.” (Goodwin, B. 2014, p. 63).

Conclusion

From the evidence obtained throughout this assignment it is clear that an ideology is a complex idea that implements a system. However this system changes through time to suit the environment and the individuals which use this system. Early liberal thinkers during the Enlightenment period shared very similar but different views to classical liberals and the same could also be said of modern or social liberals compared to classical liberals. These different views form the evolution of liberalism through time. Liberalism is undoubtedly an ideology in the sense that it advocates the common themes of individuality, equality for all within a legal framework and minimal government to define and enforce law. Throughout the different forms of liberalism these fundamental themes are present and they form the core of liberalism. The Enlightenment period bought about the earliest form of liberalism. John Locke one of the key Enlightenment thinkers argued for the rights of individuals, greater freedom for citizens and limited government. The Enlightenment bought about fresh ideas and inventions that inspired philosophers, scientists and social scientists.

Adam Smith also believed in individualism, freedom, limited government and free markets. Smith showcased the economic side of liberalism and the benefits of a free market with limited state interference. Adam Smith writings on economics were very influential and would go on to inspire many classical liberalists. John Stuart Mill one such classical liberalist was a proponent utilitarianism and advocated the maximization of the utility of individuals or society. Modern and social liberalism are somewhat different to the previous aspects of liberalism. Social welfare and state intervention was a common theme within social or modern liberalism.

However the evolution of liberalism justifies state intervention through social welfare as providing equal opportunities for all. Today the western world is built on liberal ideas and ideals, incorporating Adam Smith’s idea of free trade and the liberalist view of minimal state intervention. Liberalism is perhaps the most dominant ideology our time. The liberalist ideas of individuality, equality and minimal government form the foundations of many political parties operating at present.