Challenges Women Went Through Economically, Socially, and Politically During The Us Reconstruction Era

Introduction

Throughout the Reconstruction era, the lives of women in the North and South progressed economically, politically, and socially. Women were becoming part of the emerging consumer culture while becoming more active in a political sector. Given how the ideal of “true womanhood” began losing its eminence in U.S. society, the New Woman began gaining popularity with their higher levels of education, leisure time, working for a wage, and participating in politics. With women gaining personal freedoms, restrictions were still placed upon them to look and act a certain way through the previous model of true womanhood, though its representation varied given the woman’s race and social standing.

Challenges Women Faced Economically, Socially, and Politically During the US Reconstruction Era

During the 1860s and the early 1900s, new opportunities for higher education became available. However, those who benefitted most from it were predominantly wealthy white women. With their higher education, women were able to access better job opportunities in fields not traditionally considered suitable for women, such as administration, clerical work, law, and political positions (Dubois & Dumenil, 2005, pp. 302, 327). Wealthier women also had the means to run their own settlement homes; one such woman was Jane Addams. African-American women could become shopkeepers and teachers, but their newfound freedom was complicated by the establishment of Jim Crow laws and public lynchings under often false charges. In Ida B. Wells’ autobiography, Crusade for Justice, she described the lynching of her friend, Thomas Moss, as “an excuse to get rid of Negroes who were acquiring wealth and property…keep the race terrorized” (Wells, 1970). Her testimony, along with her involvement in further investigating the charges brought against lynching victims, led to her being driven out of Memphis in 1892 (Dubois & Dumenil, 2005, pp. 314, 316). Sadly, working- and lower-class women were not offered the same opportunities for advancement in U.S. society. They were often confined to factory jobs, and their stays in settlement homes provided only temporary relief, though their way of life was respected (Dubois & Dumenil, 2005, pp. 368-369).

In contrast to immigrant women’s education, the education young Native girls received in government-run boarding schools was designed to assimilate them into the dominant American culture, as Americans felt a need to "civilize" non-Americans. For Native girls, this meant being forced into domesticity and receiving harsh punishments—such as whippings or being tied up—if they “reverted back to their Indian ways” or tried to escape (Dubois & Dumenil, 2005, p. 349). To receive funding, Indian boarding schools would present pictures of Native girls before and after their “Americanization.” A pair of photos taken of three young Native girls before and after their assimilation show their hair being cut, dressed in American clothing, and sitting at a table. The only commonality is the look of sorrow on their faces. Given their low status, it was rare for Native children to progress in society, as very few achieved even basic English literacy skills.

The Influence of Beauty Standards and Leisure on Women's Lives

With women having more free time for leisure, there was an expectation for them to be presentable and beautiful when outside the home. Cosmetics, previously worn by prostitutes, were marketed to women as tools to cover their flaws, attract future husbands, distinguish themselves from other women, and set beauty standards, especially for young girls. Further boosting the sale of cosmetics and the formation of salons was the scrutiny of a woman’s appearance by men and other women, advertisements, the private selling of makeup door to door, and cosmetics expanding to be sold in local drug stores (Peiss, 1998, pp. 373-374, 378). Wearing makeup and keeping up appearances was an indication of a woman’s wealth and how highly she valued herself. If a lower-class woman was seen without makeup in public, she was deemed inferior compared to middle and working-class women who bought makeup and wore it while working.

During the Progressive era, wealthy women had the freedom to become philanthropists and activists. One of the most successful philanthropists was Madam C.J. Walker, the daughter of enslaved parents, who acquired wealth and status in the cosmetics industry aimed at African-American women (Dubois & Dumenil, 2005, p. 421). Her success not only inspired other women but also highlighted the potential for African-American women to achieve economic independence and social influence, despite the challenges they faced.

The Rise of Women Wage Earners and Social Activism

The growth of women wage earners increased during the Progressive Era. By 1920, twenty percent of the workforce was female, with over half of the labor consisting of immigrant and/or non-white women. After the Civil War, the profession of nursing was no longer seen as a “domestic service.” Even the profession of teaching evolved to where women could be professors. Despite segregation being enforced in both the North and South, black women were able to form their own schools in local communities to educate young children during professionalization (Dubois & Dumenil, 2005, pp. 408-409). Despite these changes, women were still expected to become mothers and put aside their professional careers while their children were young. Immigrant women, wives, and daughters, were expected to become wage earners while trying to maintain old-world customs. Their means of earning money were through domestic housework for the more leisured White upper-class women.

Given the surge in immigration, many lived in cramped and poorly kept rooms. A photo taken by Jacob Riis for the New York Tribune shows five women staying, possibly temporarily, in a police station with clothes drying and their only means of furniture and heating being a stove. Riis’s photo reveals the extent of homelessness, the collapse of working-class families, and why many immigrant women felt the need to contribute a wage for their families (Dubois & Dumenil, 2005, p. 392).

Women's Political Engagement and Suffrage Movement

With more women working outside the home, women began to voice their opinions more publicly and politically. The newest wave of the suffragist movement gave middle-class women voices in political settings while drawing attention from wealthy and working-class women. However, the funding for marches and attention often came from the wealthy women’s husbands. During what would be known as the Women’s Era, organizations such as the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) and the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) granted women voices in politics through demands for fair wages, the establishment of a maximum workweek, and the end of child labor (Dubois & Dumenil, 2005, pp. 286, 309-310). Additionally, their alliance would bring more attention to women’s suffrage, especially with an endorsement from Susan B. Anthony and a shift to have women’s votes be amended. Some immigrant women joined the women’s movements under the promise of gaining freedom for themselves and possibly for their daughters (Dubois & Dumenil, 2005, p. 363).

Yet, no black woman was invited to attend women’s movements and organizations, nor were Native American women involved in these known organizations. African-American women had their own organizations, but they were segregated from movements founded by white women. Despite these exclusions, African-American women played a critical role in advocating for civil rights and community welfare, laying the groundwork for future generations of activists.

Conclusion

The transformation of American women’s roles began in the middle of the nineteenth century and continued into the first decades of the twentieth. During that time, women gained more influence and prominence politically and socially (Dubois & Dumenil, 2005, p. 441). However, women were still expected to achieve the goal of motherhood. What differed was that they now had a greater possibility of working outside the home while being a mother or choosing not to become a mother at all. With vast amounts of freedom, women challenged social expectations while still being expected to maintain a form of decorum and femininity. In the long run, the degree of freedom women experienced was evident in comparison to the early nineteenth century, but their independence was reliant on their class and race. More opportunities and means of social advancement were available to the privileged and leisured classes, but non-white women were limited in job prospects and faced segregation, discrimination, and violence. Despite these obstacles, the improvements women made paved the way for a new era of women’s rights and liberties.

References

• Dubois, E. C., & Dumenil, L. (2005). Through Women's Eyes: An American History with Documents. Bedford/St. Martin's.
• Peiss, K. (1998). Hope in a Jar: The Making of America’s Beauty Culture. Metropolitan Books.
• Wells, I. B. (1970). Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells. University of Chicago Press.