From Andragogy to Social Learning, Behaviorism, Cognitive Paradigms, and More

Theory of learning is a conceptual framework that serve to clarify how beings learn. Understanding how knowledge is created enables educators to shape the methodological delivery of their subject material in order to strengthening how knowledge is created to suit theoretical frameworks, Taylor (2017).

The evolving education systems have become full of differences for us nowadays. A number of scientific researchers give paradigms for studying how people learn. Andragogy and pedagogy are two significant and popular techniques of learning.

Malcolm Knowles's name is the name most connected with andragogy today, in explaining his theory of adult teaching, re-introduced the word in 'The Modern Practice of Adult Education.' Knowles (1980) describes andragogy as the 'art of assisting adult learning science' Knowles ' theory recognizes that adult learners are autonomous and self-directed. Adults are motivated intrinsically by real reality. The classes must be purposeful and practical, Darden (2014), (as quoted by Knowles, 1980). Andragogy focuses on adult learning and is identified solely as why an adult is taking a course or is originally educated. Children, on the other hand, do not have a wealth of understanding and experience hence the word pedagogy, so they need organized instruction and teacher-oriented teaching to direct their learning from the teacher. In andragogy, therefore, teachers must actively involve adult learners in the process, and they must be aware of the importance of the content they teach from their perspective and interest. The teacher is a facilitator, not an expert on the subject.

Knowles theorized in his theory that adults should focus on six premises related to the motivation of adult learning. The first premises are that adults could react to inner motivators better than external motivators . Next, adults are particularly interested in learning topics with work experience and more life experience. Thirdly, experience is the foundation of learning operations, which obviously demonstrates that adults have better experience. In addition, adults need to understand the need and the reason for learning something. In addition, adults are contributors to their own participation in the planning and assessment of their education, and should also be accountable for their choices on their education. And last but not least, adult learning should be more problem-centric than content-centric, Akin (2014).

These are some teaching strategies that can be applied to andragogy in the classroom and to the clinical setting for learners. In the first place, teachers or clinical instructors can recognize the learners preferred learning style by submitting a questionnaire to students to define and discuss their preferred learning style. Second, teachers can set out projects for the student that represent their interests and which they must finish during the course of their assignment. For example: to provide an in-service on the subject of selection, to present a case study on the basis of one of their colleagues, or to conduct a client group activity session. Third, teachers can ask learners to play a part by providing them any scenario on a particular subject. In addition, educators can also help them in drawing a mind map on these experiences when problem-solving, reflecting and implementing clinical reasoning procedures, Chametzky (2014)

Since learning is so complicated, there are many distinct psychological theories to explain how and why individuals learn. The theory of first learning is called the theory of behaviourism. Behaviourism, also known as behavioural psychology, is a learning theory based on the principle that all behaviour is accomplished by conditioning. Conditioning takes place through communication with the setting. Behaviourists think that our reactions to environmental stimuli shape our behaviour.

Behaviourism consists of 2 categories of conditioning called classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning is a sort of learning association, first founded by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1927) while experimenting with dog digestion. The theory usually relates to the acquisition of fresh behaviour through a combination of different stimuli. By associating the topic with the stimulus topic, it generates fresh reactions and learns to behave ,Gottlieb & Begej (2014)

Teachers are in a position to apply classical conditioning to their classrooms by establishing a favourable classroom atmosphere to assist learners overcome anxiety or fear. Pairing an anxiety-provoking scenario, such as performing in front of a group, with a pleasant environment, enables students learn fresh connections. In addition, educators can also use colourful slides for presentation to simulate student attention in the classroom. Teachers may also use clapping hand techniques in classrooms to attract students ' attention. In the meantime, orientation in the clinical learning zone can be provided during the first clinical exercise so that fear can be eliminated in freshly graduated nurses, Henley (2017).

Second, operating conditioning is a teaching method that reinforces or punishes behaviour and thus strengthens or extinguishes reaction. Edward Thorndike (1898) invented the word 'law of impact' in which behaviours that are followed by effects that satisfy the organism is more likely to be repeated, and behaviours that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. B. F. Skinner (1938) studied operating conditioning by conducting experiments with rats in what he called the' Skinner Box.' He distinguished between positive and negative reinforcement and also studied the notion of extinction., Richelle (2016).

Operant conditioning promotes positive reinforcement that can be applied to the school setting in order to achieve the healthy behaviour that every student needs. One of the primary ways to strengthen behaviour is through praise, as illustrated in the following instance. During the' listening moment' on the carpet, learners are needed to stay silent and to raise their hands when they want to create a vocal contribution to the class. When a kid succeeds in sitting and acting in an exemplary manner, the teacher may say,' Great effort or,' Well done.' Undoubtedly, the student will feel happy with himself after having received such a favourable reaction. The sense of pride and self-satisfaction is one that they will want to emulate in the future, and so they are likely to act well during the ' listening moment ' from here on. Other than that, when teach a student something completely fresh, like how to spell a specific word. If they do it properly, the teacher can give credit to the message that they did it right. By doing the opposite, when they don't get it precisely right, educators can try to keep them from doing it this way in the future, Fayombo (2015).

Behaviours may also be reduced by either non-reinforcement or penalty, according to the operant conditioning principles. An example in the field of clinical practice is that a nursing student is continuously late for class and is noisily disrupting the class when she lastly comes, irritating both the other learners and the teacher. The educator finds that there is no valid reason for the student's lateness that the student says she oversleeps. The instructor attempts to praise the student the few times she goes to practice on time (positive reinforcement) and tries not to pay attention to her when she arrives late (non-reinforcement), but the student continues to be late to class more often than she is on time. As a last resort, the teacher may seek penalty, which includes the use of a negative reinforcer and the removal of a positive reinforcer The instructor might tell the student that if she is late, she must come in the back door and sit in the back of the class, making sure she doesn't disturb anyone. Each time the student is late, the instructor will make note in her book (negative reinforcer of not doing well in the course),Roessger (2014).

Social learning theory incorporates cognitive learning theory, claiming psychological factors affect learning, and behavioural learning theory, assuming that learning is based on response to environmental stimuli. Psychologist Albert Bandura 1977 incorporated these two ideas into a strategy called social learning theory and laid down four requirements for learning observation (environmental), retention (behavioural), reproduction (cognitive) and motivation (both), Bethards (2014)

Students learn by watching behaviours and debating results. Teachers often use the concept of social learning as part of a behavioural intervention plan. Other uses are when educators model discussions and assist learners to self-regulate discussions and behaviours. In this theory, educators can pair weaker learners with brilliant learners so that leaning takes place through observation. In clinical teaching, the teachers can evaluate the nurses using the checklist by ensuring that the operation is carried out properly and that the nurses must be corrected accordingly. For example, when a preceptor is a demonstration dressing technique, nurse students should observe and redo. The preceptor needs to correct the errors and motivate him if he does the right thing, Perrott (2014)

Essentially, the cognitive paradigm claims that the mind's 'black box' should be opened and understood. The learner is seen as a processor of data (like a laptop), Harasim (2017). Cognitive learning theory includes two theories called gestalt theory and assimilation theory Cognitive learning theory consists of two concepts called gestalt theory and assimilation theory. The Gestalt Principles of Grouping represent the culmination of the work of the German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohle at the beginning of the 20th century, who was trying to comprehend how beings usually obtain significant perceptions from the chaotic stimuli around them. Wertheimer and the company have identified a set of laws addressing this natural compulsion to seek order in the midst of disorder, where the mind 'informs' what the eye sees by making sense of a series of elements as an image or illusion., Hamlyn (2017). Meanwhile, the concept of assimilation was launched by Ausubel (1987) in his theory, which states that the most meaningful cognitive learning takes place as a consequence of the interaction between the fresh data that the individual acquires and the specifically appropriate cognitive structures that the person already possesses, Hannum (2015).

There are few methods to apply this theory to teaching instances by altering the periodic stimulus and using colour, motion, and modifications in probability theory learning. Other than that preceptor in clinical practice, students ' nurses can also ask first about the subject they are going to teach before the beginning of the class in order to verify the fundamental understanding of learners, Ashman & Conway(2017).

Constructivism founder John Dewey (1933) described it as an active process in which learners build concepts or fresh concepts based on their present and previous understanding, Brinkmann (2017). Later there are two basic versions of the constructivist approach: cognitive and social constructivism, developed by Jean Piaget (1936) and Lev Vygotsky (1962). Cognitive Constructivism focuses on the person, inner development of understanding, Barrouillet (2015), while social Constructivism indicates that learners first build knowledge in a social context and then internalize it separately, Daniels (2016) .

Teachers can apply this theory to learning by providing students a subject or case study to be presented as individual or group work. They can also use distinct symbols and numbers to teach in the classroom. In the region of clinical exercise, the preceptor may provide role-playing exercises, such as giving the student nurses any situation concerning health problems and asking them to conduct. In addition to establishing a group debate at the patient's bedside, it can also assist to form and reinforce collaboration between student nurses, Shabani (2016)

Humanism is a paradigm strategy that considers learning to be a personal act in order to fulfil one's potential, Huss (2015). Humanism advocates also think that it is essential to study the learner as a whole. Self-study, personality psychology, motivation and results are fields of specific concern to humanists. Some of the main advocates of this strategy include Carl Rogers (1951) and Abraham Maslow (1943) as mentioned by Cherry (2014). The main outcomes for humanism are suggested to be the growth of self-realized, self-governing people. 

The connection between teachers and learners is the most significant factor in this theory. Teachers can apply this concept in a variety of ways by creating a favourable atmosphere for learners to learn effectively, by arriving early in the classroom and by checking the lighting, ventilation and audio visual aids, Osakwe (2014). Other than that preceptor for clinical practice, the use of forenames between students to enhance learner identity and reduce communication obstacles also adds to a productive learning system.

In conclusion, it is essential that educators incorporate distinct elements of distinct concepts into their teaching techniques in order to get the best out of learning theories and to allow learners to enhance their efficiency in the classroom or clinical practice area.

REFERENCE

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