Human Perfection Ideology in Eastern Religions: Buddhism, Hinduism and Taoism

When asked to imagine something perfect, like a perfect circle, people across the globe imagine a concentric round figure fulfilling a set of standards. The term perfection, however, loses its static nature when applied to such concepts as the perfect human being. Throughout history people have created standards for what the perfect person should be like. What a particular society sees as good or bad can be a main factor in influencing the idea of human perfectibility. A perfect person in a caveman society might be a strong aggressive bison hunter, but his mangy appearance and lack of acquaintance with a toothbrush might make him very imperfect today in a lawyer's suit in downtown New York. The same idea holds true for any other cultural tradition, including different religions. By taking a closer look at the three major eastern religions of Hinduism, Buddhism and Daoism, the idea of human perfection can be better understood.

The purpose of each religious tradition is the attainment of some ultimate goal. It is the achievement of this goal that characterizes the perfect human in that particular religion. This absolute is what Mircea Eliade refers to as "the sacred" (Eliade, 1959). For Hindus it is transcendence; a perfect Hindu is one who has transcended the world. In Buddhism "the sacred" is enlightenment; the perfect Buddhist is one who is enlightened. For Daoism it is harmony; the perfect Daoist is one who is in harmony with the people and things around him. By examining the importance of "the sacred" and how it can be achieved, we can better understand each religious tradition and their different views on perfection.

Hinduism

The Hindu religion is comprised of many different sects. Some of the concepts differ slightly between the different forms. The most basic ideas, however, are widely accepted. Transcendent means, "being above and independent of the material universe" (Radhakrishnan and Moore, 1957). In Hinduism this term can be thought of as a means of becoming free from the restraints of the world and entering into a kind of heaven. This transcendence is often associated with the deity Brahman. Brahman represents the Supreme Reality for Hindus (Shattuck, 1999). When one attains the capacity to place the consciousness out of the cosmic dimension, it is believed that one can enter into transcendence, which is an upholding or all-encompassing Consciousness. This consciousness is not involved in the flux and flow of material creation and hence is untouched by the ravages of time and decay and death that appear to be the principal features of our universe (Radhakrishnan and Moore, 1057). Methods of escape into this "transcendent Brahman" were thus devised in order to grant solace to the troubled human spirit (Iyer, 1992). This state of peace, by virtue of its static quality, is able to liberate the seeker from any further involvement in the torment of life and death.

The way to achieve transcendence is through the practice of good karma. Karma is the law of consequence with regard to action, is the driving force behind the cycle of reincarnation or rebirth. According to karma theory, every action has a consequence, which will be felt in either this or a future life (Shattuck, 1999). Therefore, morally good acts will have positive consequences, and bad acts will produce negative results. Rebirth in this instance is accepted only as a means to achieve liberation from the reincarnation cycle. Ultimately one must go beyond all karma, good or evil. This is to place our sense of reality in our true self, not in the effects of our actions. We must eventually renounce the fruit of all our actions. In that alone is freedom and transcendence (Iyer, 1992). Hence the greatest virtue does not seek to change the world or improve ourselves, but to rest in harmony with the peace of what is.

One of the major Hindu deities, Lord Ganesha, is exemplary of the characteristics a perfect Hindu follower must possess to achieve transcendence (Grimes, 1995). He has a human form with the head of an elephant, and the blend of human and animal parts represents many of the ideals of perfection. The left tusk of the elephant represents human emotion, and the right tusk human intellect. The left tusk is slightly broken, showing that a perfect person is one who has conquered his or her ego. A purified or controlled ego can live in the world without being affected by worldly temptations. This can be accomplished by surrendering pride to attain humility and conquering emotions with wisdom. By controlling the ego, one's wisdom can shine forth. A controlled ego allows for other qualities of a perfect human to be attainable, namely wisdom and understanding, as represented by the elephant's large head, as well as kindness and compassion toward all, represented by the human heart. In addition, the large elephant ears denote a great capacity to listen to others (Grimes, 1995). The perfect human is strong enough to face the ups and downs of the external world, yet delicate enough to explore the subtle realms of the inner world. Therefore, a perfect individual must be able to face all pleasant and unpleasant experiences of the world. In short, a perfect Hindu performs all duties in the world with purity, peace, and truthfulness. With theses practices of perfect karma a Hindu will be able to escape the karmic wheel and achieve transcendence.

Buddhism

Like Hinduism, Buddhism is also comprised of many sects. A focus on the ancient practice of Buddhism, Theravada, best illustrates the idea of the perfect Buddhist. Most Buddhists believe that people are responsible for their actions (Lopez, 2002). All acts committed by a person will impact their lives at one time or another. If a person commits a harmful act to another, a harmful act will be committed against them at some later time. The system by which this occurs is karma (Gethin, 1998). The benefits or punishments that result from each action or decision may not be immediately felt, it may take several incarnations or lifetimes. With Karma, past actions affect one's present and future incarnation. As each soul is reincarnated and learns the lessons of the eight fold path, it is brought closer to a state of perfection. The eight-fold path is right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration (Aitkin, 1994). When an individual has given up the selfishness of personal identity and merged with the entire universe, he is thought to have achieved enlightenment, the ultimate goal of any Buddhist (Larkin, 1997). This is a final state for most. A fully enlightened human being has no selfish inclinations and understands everything as it is. They are no longer attached to the world of ignorance; they have transcended the world, no longer clinging to it. A perfected human being is one who has wisely reflected and transcended the world, but still lives in the world and works in the world for the welfare of other beings.

Dharma, literally meaning "the course of right conduct", is the path or the way to enlightenment. Dharma is used to refer to the teachings of the Buddha and the theology that surrounds Buddhist doctrine (Lopez, 2002). Buddha is a title, not the name of a person. Buddha literally means "to wake" and become enlightened (Gethin, 1998). It is a term that denotes a person who has attained supreme truth and wisdom. Meditation helps Buddhists understand that Buddha should be treated as their example of how to become unattached from things and how to cope with the feelings of unselfishness and desire (Larkin, 1997). One can learn to practice meditation and learn to be decreasingly less selfish, so that what one does have, he or she is willing to share with others. At this point the follower finds the joy of sharing as the reward, but it is not an expected reward. The follower lives his or her life thinking about the responsibility for action and speech. He or she lives in a way that is not harmful to other creatures by refraining from violent actions and speech. Life is also free from exploitation, and from all that causes division, confusion, anguish and despair in the lives of other beings. He or she avoids actions or using speech that causes suffering in the minds of others.

These characteristics are all described in the Pali Canon, the scriptures of Theravada Buddhism (Khena, 1987). The listings are of the rajadhammas, the virtues and duties of a wise ruler. These characteristics do not only apply to Theravada followers, but are a general description of the perfect Buddhist. The first virtue is dana, which means generosity. The second is sila, or high moral conduct as described by the five precepts. Third is pariccaga, or self-sacrifice, giving up personal happiness, safety, and comfort for the welfare of the nation. Ajjava, which is honesty and integrity, is the fourth. Next is maddava, which means kindness or gentleness towards oneself and towards others. The sixth is tapa, which means austerity or self-control, giving up what you don't really need. Akkodha, which is non-anger, non-impulsiveness, calmness is the seventh. Eight is avihimsa, or non-violence, non-oppression. Then comes khanti, which is patience, forbearance, and tolerance. Avirodhana, non-deviation from righteousness, or conformity to the law, is the tenth. Lastly is dhamma, knowing what is right, what is appropriate to time and place (Khena, 1987).

Daoism

In Daoism the path to perfection is to follow the Dao, the way. The goal of the Daoist is to harmonize with the Dao and thereby become one with the cosmos, with nature, with all things (Lopez, 2002). This principle of Dao is divided into two principles that oppose one another in their actions, yin and yang. Together yin and yang represent all the principles one finds in the universe; it is the Chinese perspective of balance and continual change (Kohn, 2001). The ancient Chinese philosophers believed that all things in the universe contain elements of both yin and yang. Within each element of yin and yang is the seed of the other, and when yin and yang work in harmony together all is good in the world. When one is stronger than the other, however, the balance of the harmony and power changes and life is unpredictable. In accordance with these ideas, the perfect Daoist must live in harmony and achieve balance of the yin and yang. He or she accepts the imperfections in this world, but tries to live with them knowing this life has its pains and also its pleasures.

In order to achieve complete harmony with the universe one must follow the method of "non-action". Non-action, or wu wei, is often likened to the behavior of water, naturally flowing and non-obstructive (Allan, 1997). Water benefits all things without actively doing anything, just as Daoists should do. Non-action occurs when a person or thing acts in natural and spontaneous concordance with its inner principle (Kohn, 2001). It is the opposite of all that is arbitrary, learned and artificial. By practicing non-action, all things are allowed to occur naturally, in harmony and according to the Dao.

The requirements for the following the Dao and achieving harmony are outlined in nine forms (Allen, 1997). First, to keep harmony. Everything under heaven connotes Yin and Yang and the vital breaths of Yin and Yang keep acting upon each other, and thus things keep unifying themselves. Secondly, keep to the spirit. This means to guard one's spirit and prevent it from chasing external things and getting exhausted. Thirdly, keep to the Vital Breath. Blood and the Vital Breath are the essence of human beings. When one is tied down by desires, his spirit will be exhausted and his inner Vital Breath will consequently be insufficient. He who cultivates Dao must purify his heart, reduce his desires and protect and nourish his Original Vital Breath in order to prevent calamities or invasion of harmful breath. Fourth, to keep benevolence. Those who cultivate Dao regard the human world as unimportant. This in turn creates a regard for all worldly things as trivial so they will never be confused. Also life and death are equal, making the Daoist fearless, and because they are indifferent to changes they are wise and won't be dazzled. Fifth, keep to simplicity. One should get rid of filth and worries, and understand the way of balance and harmony in nourishing one's life. One should never be greedy. Sixth, keep to constancy. It is inevitable that people become powerful, lowly, poor or rich, but those who have secured Dao will not change their original intention no matter how their conditions change. Seventh, keep to pureness. One should have his mind as pure as water, have no greedy or filthy ideas, and shouldn't indulge in his desires. Eighth, keep to fullness. The sun and moon will begin to wane when they reach the full. One should not attempt to be perfect, but should never be self-satisfied. He must increase his virtues every day, and not dare to be violent. Ninth, keep to gentleness. Only being gentle can conform to the way of simplicity. To be specific, one should have no happiness, anger, joy or bitterness, regard all things as mysteriously identical, and make no distinction between right and wrong, harmonize and soften his Vital Breath, and balance his body so as to drift along with Dao (Allen, 1997).

In each of the religions being examined, the idea of what constitutes a perfect human being is based on what the main purpose of that religion is. The specific traits of the perfect human are different in respect to different religious traditions. However, the idea of prescribing a way of life in order to reach an ultimate goal is shared by all three religions. It is only by becoming the personification of perfection that anyone can hope to achieve his or her goal, whether it is a Hindu's transcendence, a Buddhist's enlightenment, or a Daoist's universal harmony.