India Country Report: History, Religions, Language, and Culture

Abstract

This paper explores multiple aspects of India and the people of this ancient country. The paper includes information on the history, religion, language, communication (verbal and nonverbal), as well as customs, family (including values and identity formation), and socialization among the Indian people and their culture. There are many layers to the ancient culture of India, which cannot possibly all be covered in this paper. Existing civilizations of India cover more than 4000 years, making it one of the oldest in the world. India’s culture is made up of several customs, traditions, and beliefs which are products of the rich culture and heritage of the country. The nation was transformed by its rich history and each Indian inherently has a sense of national pride. This paper is a modest attempt at showing the culture and pride behind this beautiful country.

An Overview of India

The History of India

India’s history dates all the way back to the beginning of human civilization. The Indus Valley Civilization, known as the Harappan Civilization, were the first of the people of the western part of South Asia, in approximately 2500 BC. This area is what we now know today as Western India and Pakistan. Four of the largest ancient civilizations inhabited the Indus Valley, which were of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, and China. The Indus Valley Civilization, as modern and highly developed as their cities were at that time, were no challenge for nature which brought an end to this civilization, around 1500 BC, through recurrent flooding, earthquakes, and other natural disasters.

The first actual people of India were the Vedics, named after the Vedas of the early literature of the Hindu people. Hinduism is the religious and spiritual thought that was born from the Vedas. Following the Vedic civilization, there was the Buddhist era (6th and 7th century BC), followed by the Kushanas, and then the Gupta Dynasty. For almost three centuries there was a strong Islamic influence in India under the rule of the Chalukyas, the Pallavas, the Pandyas, the Rashtrakutras, the Muslims, and finally Mughal Empire. The Mughal Empire united Muslim and Hindu kingdoms of India, and its millions of citizens, under one rule and became one of the greatest empires that ever existed.

Many came to India, some to try to conquer, some to loot the country, and some to trade. Immigrants to India included the Persians, followed by the Iranians, the Parsis, and then the Moghuls. Chengis Khan invaded and looted India on many occasions. Alexander the Great tried to conquer India. Columbus also tried to go to India but landed in America instead. The Portuguese came to trade goods and the French came and settled colonies in India. But those that came and ruled over India, enforcing their political power for almost 200 years, were the British. The British conquest of India lasted from 1757 until its completion in 1856. In 1857, the Indians revolted in what is known as the First War of Indian Independence. But they were defeated within a year by the British powers.

By the end of WWII, a new Prime Minister by the name of Attlee, came to Power in Britain. Atlee was a sympathetic to the Indian people and their freedom. In 1946, an interim government was put in place to create a Constituent Assembly of elected members and nominees of the Indian states. The interim government was headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, a follower of Mahatma Gandhi. The Muslims League was unhappy with the Constituent Assembly and argued to make Pakistan a separate state. India was then divided into India and Pakistan separately due to the Muslim League’s strong push for it. On August 14, 1947, India became free from British rule and Jawaharlal Nehru its first Prime Minister.

As the voice of the newly freed nation, the Prime Minister said:

“Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we will redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will wake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance…

We end today a period of ill fortune, and India discovers herself again.” (Nehru, 1947)

In 1949, the Constitution of India was created and, in 1950, the first President of India, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, was elected by the people.

The Many Religions of India

As with many other countries, India’s economics, politics, and culture have been greatly influenced by religion throughout history. India is full of sacred and holy spaces across the vast land. This is evident with the many people publicly praying and often leaving offerings at these spaces. What may look like an old mound of clay and dust to the average Westerner, may be a crumbling temple to the villagers nearby. From fruit to flowers to chalk drawings, people have left prayers and offered pieces of their lives for some form of spiritual healing or blessing.

India is very diverse in all its religions. They include Hinduism (the religion of the majority), Islam (Muslims make up the largest minority religion), Sikhism, Buddhism, Christianity, and Jainism, as well as many others. All of these religions are tolerated and practiced in harmony with one another. Many different religions have many different festivals, all which are celebrated by people of varying religions. India is a country of brotherhood and love and this is evident in the celebrations which unite everyone in the neighborhoods, cities, and villages across India.

Hinduism. Hinduism is the world’s oldest and third largest religion. It is the majority religion in India with 84% of the population. It is also known as Sanatan Dharma (the everlasting religion).

Islam. Islam is practiced by roughly 12% of the Indian population but, because is the second most prominent religion in the country, it has a strong influence on Indian society. Islam has been a part of India since the 8th century, after the fall of the province Sindh.

Buddhism. Buddhism was created from the philosophical teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, a royal prince from Kapilvastu, India. Buddhism originated between 563 and 483 BC. It spread from India through Sri Lanka, Tibet, Southeast and Central Asia, as well as Mongolia, China, Japan, and Vietnam.

Christianity. There are approximately 25 million Christians in India. This was believed to have become a prominent religion of India due to the British rule for nearly 200 years.

Sikhism. Approximately 2% of the population are Sikh. The translation of Sikh is disciple. A true Sikh believes that they should remain unattached to worldly possessions.

Jainism. Less than 1% of India are Jains. In ancient times, they were known as merchants and tradesmen. The largest population of Jains reside in the states of Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Various Languages in India

As with the multitude of religions of India, there are also many different languages spoken throughout the country. The language that is predominant is Hindi. Most Indians can speak Hindi, as it is taught in all the schools in India. There are 23 languages (officially acknowledged), with over 720 dialects, and 13 written scripts. It is suggested that there are possibly over 1,600 different languages or dialects in India alone. English is widely spoken throughout India and is becoming more common in large urban areas as American and European outsourcing moves into the cities of India.

Many of the Indian languages use the Devanagari alphabet. It is the most popular form of writing in India. It was originally used to write Sanskrit, an ancient language that originated in Northern India. Devanagari is written left to right and each letter resembles a vowel or consonant.

The primary languages of India are Hindi, English, Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Oriya, Punjabi, Assamese, Maithili, and a small percentage divided among the other 8 or 9 main languages. Some of the languages are named similarly for the area they are spoken in. Such as Tamil is spoken in Tamil Nadu and Punjabi in Punjab. Language in India is regional, and dialects affect the way the languages are spoken throughout India.

Communication features

In India, it is customary to greet each other by saying ‘Namaste’ and placing your hands together at your chest as if in prayer while giving a slight bow. Men will usually shake hands with each other when greeting or leaving but they will not usually shake hands with women. It is taboo for a man and woman to touch each other. Indians use their right hand for greeting and touching things including eating, but the left hand is reserved for bathroom duties. There is a hierarchy in Indian culture, so the elders are greeted first, and caste and social standing affect all greetings.

If you are unaware of the way Indians communicate, verbally or non-verbally, there may be many misunderstandings during a conversation. This also changes depending on the region. There are many forms of non-verbal communication that Indians use to communicate. Like many other Asian cultures, Indians typically have a hard time saying no, especially to a stranger or business associate. The word “no” seems offensive to them and they feel it may cause harm to the relationship, even among friends. Indians may appear vague, or to lack commitment, when faced with a disagreement. Vague answers such as “I will do my best” or “Yes, but it may prove to be a challenge” may very well mean ‘no’. Indians may tell others what they think they want to hear as to not seem confrontational if they are pushed into giving an answer, they aren’t comfortable with.

Indians are very family-oriented. This means that they involve their families in almost all decisions and take their family’s opinions to heart. Most decisions, even in business, surprisingly, are family decisions even if the family does not appear to be physically involved or financially vested in the business. All families are financially vested in their family members business affairs because the family unit is so closely knit in India.

Verbal communication. Indians tend to be indirect and appeasing to those they aren’t comfortable with. This is to avoid confrontation or any conflict. They would much rather swap viewpoints or opinions in a way that seems more like a negotiation than an argument. They are, however, direct communicators with those who are close relations or someone they have a lot of trust in. Other times they may remain silent rather than argue or say no. This is when it is important to pay attention to the non-verbal communication. Absence of an agreement is sometimes a disagreement.

When asked a question, an Indian may say yes to show that they are listening and understand but not necessarily that they agree. To them, to answer no is a form of ending the relationship, thus ending any negotiation. It’s better to ask an Indian an open-ended question rather than a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ question. Asking what they think about something, rather than asking if they agree with you or your opinion, may eliminate any confusion or misunderstanding.

Non-verbal communication. Indians generally prefer and respect personal space. It is not that different from most Westerners in this regard, but this also depends on the area. India can be very crowded in many areas and this causes crowds of Indians to be shoved up against each other when in a queue or on public transportation. In most instances, when allowed, they give more space to the opposite sex than someone of the same sex. Even among married Indians, you will not very likely see any physical touch such as kissing, hugging, or holding hands. However, as with most things, this is changing among the younger generations especially in the largely populated urban areas.

Indians tend to stare without any regard for this being rude or intrusive. To them it is normal just as it is for Westerners to smile at each other. Men tend to stare more than women who may avoid any eye contact all together. Indians view pointing a finger at someone as accusatory so they will usually wave their hand with their palm down to get someone’s attention or to direct attention somewhere.

Physical gestures are very common in India. The “head bobble” where the head is tilted side to side is a way of showing agreement or understanding. To a Westerner, the “head bobble” may look like they’re showing that they don’t care or that they are disregarding what’s being said, which is how many Westerners react to those feelings. Indians may also nod to show that they understand what’s being said but this does not always mean they agree. In India the head is considered to be the holiest part of the body and the feet the dirtiest. This plays a significant role in non-verbal communication. It is considered disrespectful to touch the top of someone’s head and displaying the soles of the feet is considered rude.

Customs

India has many customs and they vary depending on the region, religion, language, gender, age, among other variances. One of the most common traditions we see almost immediately when we meet an Indian is the tilak. The tilak is a ritual mark on the forehead usually placed as a blessing. Another custom we often see is the bindi. This is a different type of mark, sometimes a jewel, placed on the forehead of married Indian women. It is meant to be symbolic of the Goddess Parvati.

A customary greeting, to show respect, is to bow down and touch the tops of the feet of their elders, parents, or teachers. The elders then may give a blessing by touching the top of the younger Indians head. This is generally the only time it is acceptable to touch the head or feet of another. Flower garlands are also a way to show respect an honor someone. This is usually done for a guest or a deity (a statue of a deity in a temple).

Other acts of devotion that are custom are lighting the Diya and also what is called Aarti. A Diya is a lamp that is lit every morning and evening in the homes of Indians to honor God. Aarti is a lamp that is circled around a deity, while songs of praise are sung, to worship that deity or God. Aarti, in Sanskrit, means “towards virtue”. Indians always remove their shoes before entering a holy or sacred place. As a visitor, you will always know when arriving at a sacred place by the piles of shoes outside the door. It is customary to dress modestly when visiting these holy places. Tourists should always have extra clothes to put on if they are traveling in the summer to cover themselves up. It is taboo to show skin in a sacred or holy place.

Some social customs include names Indians give each other. Many go by a nickname given to them by their family or close relations. Older females are often referred to as ‘auntie’ by those they are close to. Younger males referred to as ‘little brother’. Surnames denote what area or caste someone originates from and may have a suffix that indicates the type of trade business their ancestors were in. Indians may also be given a religious name.

Customary social etiquettes include bringing the hosts and their children gifts when visiting. Remove your shoes before entering someone’s home. Always accept an invitation to dinner unless you have a good reason for turning the invitation down. These are just a few of the many social and religious customs in India.

The role of family

Indians place the utmost importance on family. It is the core of their beliefs, values, loyalties, identity, and life path. The interest of the family take priority over the interest of the individuals. Decisions, such as careers and marriage, are made by the family collectively. The family’s reputation is always at the heart of most major decisions including who one will marry. Even Indians living abroad maintain a close relationship with their family in India and refer to them for major life decisions. It is not uncommon for an American residing Indian to return to India to marry someone his family has chosen for him.

Values. From the bosom of the family, ideals of Indian culture are born and bred. The ancient ideal of multigenerational households is still strong and widely practiced in Indian culture. As the family grows, families typically divide into smaller units if for no other reason than for comfortable living space. Today many family members may move away to take a better job and send money home to their family. But no matter the circumstance, Indians are loyal to their families and their family’s economic security.

Traditionally, in Indian culture families remain living together. How this works is the sons stay with the families and the daughters leave to live with their husband’s family once they are married. The father is usually the patriarch of the house and the mother is in charge of the daughters and daughters-in-law. If an Indian family only has daughters, then the parents may be left with no one to care for them in their old age. There is a lot of importance placed on having sons for this reason.

There is much inequality between genders in India. The status of men is respected much more than women. In fact, it is still a tradition for many women in India to wear a veil when in the presence of other men, or to not leave the home without being accompanied by a man (usually a relative) or family member such as their mother-in-law. Gender inequality is constantly changing and never more than it is today. Now boys and girls, typically, will receive the same education. This differs from village life to urban life. Many village girls are expected to stay home and do the domestic work with their mothers and do not go to school. India now has affirmative action programs for women, and because of this, women are becoming more empowered to achieve higher education and employment opportunities equal to those of men.

Identity formation. Because India is mainly a collectivism society, there is very little individual identity among individuals. As pointed out earlier, families make joint decisions from the minor to the major life situations of a family member. Education, careers, marriages, living arrangements, and geographical locations are almost always decided by the elders in the family for the entire family. This is slowly changing over time as India becomes more ‘Westernized’ due to technology and more opportunities, but it is still a strong tradition that is hard to break from.

Arranged marriages are common in India. Today the families discuss and choose the unions together more than they ever did in the past. In the past, families (usually parents and grandparents) made the decision without any regard to their child whom they were arranging the marriage for. While this is progress to many young people, it is still a heartbreaking situation for many of the young Indians of today. More and more Indians are forming love relationships before marriage and forced to break them off to marry someone they’ve been promised to by the family, even if they did have a say in who that is. Many times, the one they have fallen in love with is not an acceptable match according to their family and would never be considered as a potential mate. Arranged marriages are almost always influenced by caste. Meaning, only members of the same caste can be paired to marry.

Weddings are a huge celebration in Indian culture. They may last several days and have even bankrupted families. Parents are expected to invite everyone they know and every family member and villager, even if they no longer reside in their village. Families have had to sell land, real estate, and businesses to pay for weddings. A large dowry is expected to go with the daughters being married which means daughters cost families a lot of money.

When a union results in the birth of an infant, it is a celebrated time for the family and even more so if the baby is a male. Due to the importance placed on having a boy, sex-selective abortions and infanticide are a part of India’s history though not officially reported. The census reflects that there have been several years where the births of females were much fewer than the births of males reported. If there is a death in the family this may impact women greatly, if the woman is of high status and her husband dies, she is expected to stay a widow and never remarry. Women who cannot financially survive have been forced to remarry and the negative stigma affects them their entire lives.

Socialization

The biggest influential component impacting the Hindu community in India is the caste system also known as the ‘varna’ system. This ancient system was created as an ideal of how society should be structured. There are four levels to the caste system. The Brahmin are the highest level and the priestly caste. The Kshatriya is the second highest level and are the warrior or royalty caste. The Vaishya are a lower level caste and are the commoners or merchant caste. Finally, there is the Shudra, the lowest level which are the laborer caste. Indians are born into a caste. There is no changing your caste. It is hereditary. Castes of high status are considered ‘pure’ whereas castes of low status are considered ‘polluted’. Because of this status given those of lower caste are not clean or pure enough to eat with, socialize with, or have relations with anyone of a higher caste status. The Dharma is the caste’s duties that are expected to uphold their social standing. Brahmins are expected to attend religious affairs and the Shudra are expected to perform their cleaning duties.

Society is very important to Indian culture. Everything a person does is looked at and judged by their society, including their own family. If someone has done something that is viewed as extremely unacceptable by society’s perception, then they are shunned and turned away from their community and family. What school you attend, what you wear, whether you marry and who you marry, all reflect how society views you as a person in their community. Family is very important to Indians, but societal opinions are the most important.

Conclusion

Barriers of languages, religions, and traditions divide the people of India. Population explosions are leading to socio-economic problems such as unemployment and poverty. Gender inequality, feticide, and child labor still exist in rural areas due to lack of education and prevailing ignorance. Deep-rooted patriarchy leaves an aftermath of violence against women and children. Social injustices such as child marriage, the caste, and the dowry system are huge detriments to the development of India. But even with all of India’s problems and injustices, she is still a country that has endured the longest through some of the hardest times experienced by multiple civilizations. India is rich in family values, religious beliefs that bring harmony and love to everyone, diverse cultures that learn to live side by side and celebrate in the many festivities held, and most of all India is all of our history. It is where most civilizations originated. We all have a connection with India in some way and we all share many of the same values which are rooted in our spirit.