Overview of The Philosophies of Psychology of Change in Regards to Adult Training

Introduction

This paper presents the principles of adult educationand psychology of change that helps promote effective change in adult learners. The adult learning stems from self-directed learning which guides the adult learner to understanding through several phases of transformation(Knowles, Holton III, & Swanson,2011; Vella, 2002) The adult learner needsmotivationto improve his or her knowledge. The adult learner’s psychological need derives froman individualized stimulantprompted by a personal life crisis, significant dilemma, trigger,major life transition or context that triggers theneed for change, collaborative transformation, self-directed learning,and reflective mentoring(Cox, 2006; Daloz, 1999; Dewey, 1993; Vella, 2002).

Keywords: principles, adult, psychology, change, transformation, self-directed

Reviews of Scholarly Literature

In adult education, a principle is “the beginning of an action”(Vella, 2002, p.3).An adult learner’s reason and purpose for learning varies, but he or she stimulated mainly by professionaladvancements and incentives(Knowles, Holton III, & Swanson, 2011). Adult education is a self-directedprocess that allows the adult learner to be part of the diagnosing, planning, implementing, and evaluating their learning process (Knowles et al., 2011;Vella, 2002;Zachary, 2000). Mezirow’s (1990) theory emphasizes the role of experiences in learning and especiallyhowthey impact the adult learner’s learningneeds.

Knowles et al.’s,(2011) theory of andragogy is a constructivist approach to learning that encourages adults to draw on their experiences.According to this model for learning, the adults need to be challenged and exposed to new possibilities of self-fulfillment(Knowles et al., 2011; Vella, 2002; Zachary, 2000). Furthermore, the adult learner needs to feel involved in the process of formulating learning objectives thattake into account his or her learning style, instructional practices, and backgrounds as well as the subject matter (Starratt, 2004;Zachary, 2000). Mentoring is an important facet of adult learning. In designing the learning experience,the mentor aids the adult learner in clarifying his or her aspirations for improved behaviors (Starratt, 2004;Zachary, 2000). He or she also helps the student diagnose thegaps between his or her aspirations and current level of performance (Vella,2002; Zachary, 2000). Effective mentors support students in identifying life problems due to gaps in knowledge (Henderson & Milstein, 2002 ). Based on this information, the adult learner and mentor organize a collaborative system to share responsibilities in the process of mutual inquiry. The mentor must collaborate with the adult learner to share possible options. Moreover, he or she must select materials and methods that will benefit the adult learner (Henderson & Milstein, 2002; Knowles et al., 2011;Vella, 2002).

The mentor supports the student in identifying the life problems he or she has experience because of the gaps in personal knowledge (Henderson & Milstein, 2002). The adult learner needs to feel valued and respected by the facilitator(Knowles et al., 2011; Vella, 2002; Zachary, 2000). The adult learners relationship with the mentorencourages the adult learner to collaborate in activities and not feel pressured to be competitive or judged in the process.

The mentor in adult educationis responsible for creating a collaborativelearningenvironment (Knowles et al., 2011; Vella, 2002; Zachary, 2000). Therefore, he or she builds a relationship with the adult learner that is based on reciprocal trust and helpfulness; he or sheshares his or her feelings, contributions, and resources with the adult learner. The adult learner needs to feel valued and respected by the mentor(Knowles et al., 2011; Vella, 2002; Zachary, 2000).. Adult learners with sufficient life experiences who effectively engage in dialogue with their mentors must take responsibility to explain their context, while making contact in every way possible is mentors’ responsibility (Vella, 2002).Quantum dialogue allows for both the mentor and mentee’s voices to be heard (Vella, 2002).The adult learner will be challenged to explore his or herexperiences as resources for learning through techniques such as discussion; role-playing,and case study analysis(Knowles et al., 2011;Vella, 2002; Zachary, 2000). Adult learning curriculagearedtoward the facilitator’sown resources and level of experiencewith the adult learnerto nurture the collaborative learning environment. The facilitator will challenge the adult learner to apply new learning to his or her experiences to increase the meaning and intergraded learning process.The adult learner will develop and grow because of the facilitator’s encouragement and application of self-evaluation procedures according to the agreed criteria(Zachary, 2000; Mezirow, 1990).The mentor creates and maintains a supportive climate with the learner that allows learning to take place (Knowles et al., 2011; Vella, 2002; Zachary, 2000). The adult learner is prepared to increase his or her knowledge due to an inherent need and motivation for immediate application. In adult education, the learners reference their life’s reservoir of experiences as a primary resource to enrich their motivation and to learn the process (Henderson & Milstein, 2002;Vella, 2002; Zachary, 2000). Mentors in adult education assess the individual needs of the adult learner and honoring the fact that all learners’ come with different learning styles, experiences, and expectations (Vella, 2002; Zachary, 2000).

Learners need to relate their content of learning to real-world problems before undertaking the goal to grow(Vella, 2002; Zachary, 2000). Adult learners are self-directed and takeresponsibility for their decisions. Knowles et al., (2011)confirm that the capacity for self-directed learning develops at some point in adulthood. Self-directed learning is acknowledgedasa cognitive investmentrelationship thatdevelops and is nurtured by the mentor and adult learner (Zachary, 2000). Adult learners have an abundance of life and work experiences which inspire and externally motivate them to adopt a style of learning that will help them problem solve and gain an internal payoff, but life experiences can also hinder their self-directed learning process (Cox, 2013).

In experientiallearning,experiences arethe basis for an observation and reflection model involving four modes of learning. Dewey, (1993) and Kolb (1984) explain that these models of experimental learning are an all-inclusive process involving four modes include concrete experience that arouses feelings, reflective observation that involves reflection and dialogue to describe the experience and feelings, abstract conceptualization aligned with the adult learner’s thinking, and active mentoring to explain the learning cycle. The learning cycle helps the adult learner identify areas in which he or she wants to expand his or her understanding or learn something new(Clark & Caffarella, 1999; Vella, 2002).

Transformative learning encompasses other forms of learning, creating a significant shift in the learners’ fundamental assumptions about themselves (Argyris & Schon,1978). Transformative learning isa more profound process of learningwhere outcomesare achieved in asingleor double loop learning process, as discussed by Argyris and Schon (1978). Transformative learning was first proposed by Mezirow (2000).The adult learnerfeels the need and creates a starting point for dialogue involving a critical examination of assumptions or perceptions, which reinforces the learner’s deep-rooted values, judgments, and expectations (Cox, 2013).Mezirow (1990) explains that the learner will automatically move from one specific behavioral stage to another without forethought, although the adult learnerstend to reject new ideas that do not support their preconceptions.

The learning material and process allow the adult learner to feel part of the process and to feel comfortable enough to make mistakes and discover new things. Learners expand their prior knowledge in the area of instruction through emotional intelligence, self-directed learning, and transformational learning (Knowles et al., 2011).Mezirow (1990) explains that adult learners will be challenged to interpret assumptions and habits of thinking. Some of these habits include the learner’s current higher-order scheme of theories, beliefs, cultural expectations, goal orientations, evaluations, and arguments (Clark, & Caffarella, 1999; Vella, 2002; Zachery, 2000).

In adult education, the instruction needs to be task oriented and relevant to the learner’s life instead of memorization, learning activities should take into account the learner’s backgrounds and learning styles (Vella, 2002; Zachary, 2000) Learning styles are a biological and developmentally imposed set of personal characteristics that make some teaching and learning methods effectivefor some and learners and ineffective for other learners(Clark, & Caffarella, 1999; Vella, 2002). Assessing an adult learner’s learning style is vital to the learning process (Clark, & Caffarella, 1999). Mezirow (1990) describes a learning style as a method one uses to concentrate, process, and retain new and arduous knowledge. To identify an adultlearner’s style of learning, the mentor must examine the individual’smultidimensionalcharacteristicsto determine what will stimulate concentration and cause lasting knowledge(Zachery, 2000). The adult learners’ learning styles and meanings varybased on theirviews of what is needed to survive and succeed (Clark & Caffarella, 1999;Henderson& Milstein, 2002).

Dialogue with a mentor strengthens the mentee’s development of new knowledge, attitudes, or skills (Knowles et al., 2011).The process of dialogue and reflection allows the learner to approach contextualexperimentation when problem-solving(Schon, 1983). Knowles et al.’s (2011) theory of andragogy confirms thatmentoring is a necessary process in adult learning theory.

Zachary (2000) and Knowles et al.(2011) mentionthat the adult learnersare an equal participants in a learning relationship with the mentor.The mentor’s role in adult education is to encourage and aid the adult learner in the achievement of his or her primarily self-directed learning process.Establishing a dialogue style of learning helps the menteetoexpand his or her knowledge(Cox, 2006; Knowles et al., 2011; Vella, 2002; Zachary, 2000).Ina mentoringrelationship, a set of goals and objectives are defined and agreed upon by both parties with mutually defined expectations, shared responsibilities, and use of multiple modalities and resources to achieve the goals and objectives(Zachary, 2000).

The collaborative mentoring paradigm is rooted in the principles and practices of adult learning (Knowles et al., 2011) stating that thementors willmotivate, encourage,and establish theadult learners; needs assessment,safety,sound relationships, sequence, praxis, respect for learners as decision makers, ideas; feelings, actions, immediacy, clear roles, teamwork, engagement, and accountability (Knowles et al., 2011;Vella, 2002; Zachary, 2000).The adult learners need to reflect,digest,and processexplicit lessons such as certain commands, functions, and operations with a mentor (Cox, 2006;Knowles et al., 2011;Vella, 2002; Zachary, 2000). The shift in the mentoring practice according to Zachary (2000) aligns with the core principles of adult learning.

The adult learner plays and active role in the learning, shared responsibilities for the priorities, learning, and resources, and gradually increasing the rigor of the self-directed learning process (Cox, 2006;Knowles et al., 2011). The mentor nurtures and develops the adult learner’s capacity for self-direction over the course of the relationship using the elements of the learning-centered mentoring paradigm (Zachary, 2000).

The “learning-centered mentoring paradigm has seven critical elements: reciprocity, learning, relationship, partnership, collaboration, mutually defined goals, and development” (Zachary, 2000, p.3). The presence of reciprocity and mutuality in a mentoring relationship frequently surprises first-time mentors. In a mentoring relationship the mentor and mentee have specific responsibilities, make contributions to the relationship, and learn from one another (Cox, 2006;Knowles et al., 2011;Zachary, 2000). The result of the mentoring relationship is newly acquired knowledge by both the mentor and mentee. Learning is a fundamental component in the mentoring process, as without learning the mentor serves no purpose (Cox, 2006; Knowles et al., 2011; Zachary, 2000).

The mentor’s function includes guiding and engaging the mentee appropriately and creating an environment that encourages self-directed learning (Cox, 2006; Knowles et al., 2011; Vella, 2002). In a mentoring relationship, it is essential for the mentor to motivate, inspire, and supportlearning and development of the mentee (Zachary, 2000). Effective mentoring relationships take thetime to develop and grow both the mentor and mentee need to work at establishing, maintaining, and strengthening the connection through the mentoring process (Cox, 2006; Knowles et al., 2011; Vella, 2002). In order to establish trust, the mentor and mentee build and strengthen the relationship and hold one another accountable for the relationship (Cox, 2006; Wagner & Simpson, 2009). An adult mentoring relationship is a collaborative relationship that focuses on the mentee’s desired learning that is achieved by the teamwork of the mentor and mentee(Wagner & Simpson, 2009).

An effective mentoring relationship will naturally flow in the direction of the defined goals and objectives established at the beginning of the mentoring relationship(Knowles et al., 2011; Vella, 2002).This means that the mentor and mentee will actively question, listen to answers, and engage in a two-way conversation to ensure that meaningful learning is in the works (Cox, 2013; Daloz, 1999; Knowles et al., 2011; Vella, 2002). The mentor need to ensure that the mentee is developing and growing momentum to develop skills, knowledge, abilities, and the critical thinking skills necessary to achieve success(Cox, 2013; Daloz, 1999; Knowles et al., 2011; Vella, 2002). In adult learning, it is essential that the mentor relates and builds on the adult learner’s emotional intelligence in the areas of self-awareness, social awareness, self-management, and relationship management even when the mentees workloadbecomes demanding (Zachary, 2000).

Application

Vella(2002), Knowles et al.(2011), and Zachary(2000) discuss the importanceof the effective principles in adult education that helps promote change in adult learnersin relation to the psychology of change. Adult learners learn best when they are involved in developing, diagnosing, implementing, and evaluating their own learning(Wagner & Simpson, 2009). The adult learners will further their education when stimulated by a specific need to know, an inherent need for immediacy, and an opportunity for application(Knowles et al., 2011; Vella, 2002). The adult learner responds best to learning when the learner is motivated to learn (Knowles et al., 2011; Vella, 2002). The adult learners will seek a program that maintains a supportive climate that promotes conditions necessary for self-directed learning to and immediate application (Daloz,1999; Zachary, 2002).The adult learner’s life experiences will influence his or her knowledge.

The adult learner will go through a serious of emotional intelligence changes to gain self-awareness (Zachary 2000;Zohar, 1997). When the adultlearner understands the emotions of others is when the learner develops social awareness around practice(Knowles et al., 2011; Vella, 2002). Self-management develops whenthe adult learner uses self-awareness and self-management skills to buildbehavior and manage professional and academic relationships effectively (Zachary, 2000).In the adult learning process, the mentor helps the mentee becomes aware of howbeliefs, assumptions, and behavior affects his or her daily life by letting go of self-limiting and unrealistic assumptions that prevent him or her from reaching his or her fullest potential (Cox, 2006; Knowles et al., 2011; Vella, 2002).Adult learners become students on their own education journey, constantly reflecting on their journey toward knowledge and growing along the way(Cox, 2006; Knowles et al., 2011; Vella, 2002; Zachary, 2000).

Conclusion

This paper examined principles for adult education in relation to thepsychology of change that helps promote effective change in adult learners. According to the research byCox (2006), Knowles et al., (2011), Vella (2002), and Zachary (2000) adult learners dictate their educational journey by constantly reflecting on their journey toward knowledge and development. In an attempt to demonstrate the importance of learning principles Vella (2002) explains that the first principle to consider in adult education is performing an adequate needs based assessment of the adult learners. In adult education,a needs assessment assists the mentor and mentee in the development of goals, objectives, and establish a collaborative relationship(Knowles et al., 2011; Vella, 2002; Zachary, 2000). In adult learning, quantum thinking is a common practice used to allow both the mentor and mentee to feel acknowledged (Vella,2002). The adult learner must take responsibility to increase levels of risk and personalize the content to benefit his or her professionaldevelopment and knowledge.The mentorsrole is to facilitate the process and engage in communication with the adult learner in every way possible in the mentoring process.Learners expand their prior knowledge in the area of instruction through emotional intelligence, self-directed learning, and transformational learning (Knowles et al., 2011). Mezirow (1990) explains that adult learners will be challenged to interpret assumptions and habits of thinking when encouraged by his or her mentor.Facilitators need to take into consideration that all adult learners have diverseinstructional needs, varying motivations for acquiring greater literacy, and varied educational, economic, linguistic,and cultural backgrounds that impact the learning process (Cox, 2006; Knowles et al., 2011; Vella, 2002; Zachary, 2000).

In adult education, the mentoring process is innately complex because it involves two unique individuals(Knowles et al., 2011; Vella, 2002). Adult mentors vary in knowledge and process in assessment, curriculum development, and education. The mentor’s level of professional development and experience vary impacting the adultlearnersexperienceand development. Adult learners are motived to learn by a broad range of factors which impact the process, structure, and outcome(Knowles et al., 2011; Vella, 2002).