South Sudan: a Study of a Young Struggling Nation

The country of South Sudan is not only continental Africa’s newest, but also the world’s newest as it was officially formed on July 9, 2011 (“South Sudan”). The country is one that was born from over fifty years of conflict and bloody civil war that led to the death of millions. It is a nation that is rich with the cultures and languages of strong people who have sacrificed much for their independence. Today, South Sudan is a struggling nation, plagued with civil war, hunger, poor health conditions, and a possible genocide, as it attempts to find stability as the world’s newest nation.

The area that is now known as South Sudan was unofficially ruled by Egypt until it was united as the Equatoria, an Egyptian province, in 1869. After a rebellion against the Egyptian rule of the province, Muhammad Ahmad, who was recognized as “the awaited religious leader” took control of the territory (“South Sudan”). North Sudan and South Sudan were ruled separately until after World War II, when the British tried, and failed, to merge South Sudan with Uganda. Following this failed merger, the Juba conference was held, and it was decided that north and south Sudan would be merged to make one country (Singerman).

In 1946, after years of British and Egyptian control, the colonists left the country to be governed by the Sudanese people. Upon their departure however, the seats which they held in the Sudanese government were filled almost entirely by the Muslim-Arabic people of the northern provinces, leaving no room in the government for the Christian-Africans of the ten southern provinces (Domke). The northern Sudanese promised the southerners power in their newly formed government, however they failed to ever follow through on their promise (Singerman). In the summer of 1955, the southern provinces began to voice their strong desire for regional autonomy, with an attack on the Sudanese government by the southern insurgent group, the Equatorial Corps. After the attack, those involved joined together to form several southern militia and insurgent groups, and so the first Sudanese Civil War began (Singerman).

The first war began before Sudan had even officially gained its independence, and lasted for more than 16 years, from 1955–1972. Most of the insurgent and rebel groups of the southern provinces remained unorganized until 1963, when the Anyanya rebel group was formed. Anyanya literally translates to ‘snake venom,” and the group maintained the sense of danger that came with their name through their guerilla warfare tactics that allowed them to become the most effective rebel group in the south (Dumke). Anyanya received aid in the form of weapons from Israel as well as from Sudan’s neighbor, Uganda, which allowed them to fight on for almost ten years (Singerman). In 1972 the northern and southern provinces agreed to sign the Addis Ababa Peace Agreement, which granted the southern provinces autonomy. The peace that resulted from this agreement only last eleven years though, until the north violated the autonomy of the south, and war once again broke out (“South Sudan”).

The second Sudanese Civil War began in 1983, and was not resolved until 2005. In 1983 Muslim-Arab president Nimeiri announced that he was intending to institute Shari’a law, and add traditional Islamic punishments into Sudan’s penal code. This meant that all Sudanese people would be subject to Islamic punishments, even the Christian-African people of the southern provinces. This did not sit well with the southerners, as they felt it directly violated the regional autonomy the Addis Ababa Peace Agreement had guaranteed them (Pike). The south also disagreed with the north on the agricultural policies which they were placing upon them. The north attempted to speed up the development of Sudan by shifting their agricultural focus from farming food to be consumed within the country, to agricultural products that could be exported to foreign countries. This shift led to much pressure put on the south to cultivate land to the extent that the land was damaged, and to the extent that people, such as the Nuba, were pushed from their homes for commercial farms to be built. These two grievances, along many other smaller ones, led to the outbreak of another war in 1983 (Dumke). The second Sudanese Civil War was often considered to be a continuation of the first civil war. This war saw the Sudanese People’s Liberation Army, led by Colonel John Garang, at the southern front lines. The SPLA was the military branch of the Sudanese People’s Liberation Movement, the movement which would go on to liberate South Sudan (Deng). The fighting between the Sudanese government and the SPLA took place mainly in the south, however the SPLA received support from the north to, as many rebelled against the government who had taken their farms for commercial use. This fighting was interrupted by proposed peace agreements such as a peace plan between the SPLM and the Sadiq al-Mahdi government of Sudan, however it wasn’t until 2005 that peace truly came. A peace accord, known as the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, was finalized in January of 2005. This peace accord created a plan that required power sharing between the northern government and the SPLM, and also gave autonomy to the southern provinces (Deng).

The two civil wars within Sudan spanned more than 50 years. During these 50 years over 2.5 people were ultimately killed, from a combination of drought, disease, and violence. The war also created more than 4 million refugees, many of whom are still residing in other countries. The wars ultimately ended up being known as Africa’s longest civil war.

In October of 2005 Garang, leader of the SPLA, was appointed the first president of Southern Sudan. After serving as president for less than a year Garang died in a plane crash, and so the presidency was put in the hands of his Vice President, Salva Kiir Mayardit. Southern Sudan’s first national election was scheduled for 2009, however it ended up being postponed until 2010 (“South Sudan”). A referendum for independence was then scheduled for 2011. The referendum took place from the 9–15 of January 2011, and resulted in a 98% vote for independence. After the almost unanimous decision was made by the southerners to form a new nation, a transitional constitution immediately began to be drafted, and was approved to be used for four years, while a permanent constitution was drafted. On July 9, 2011, South Sudan officially gained its independence (“South Sudan”).

Today South Sudan’s government is still a transitional one. The city of Juba currently serves as the nation’s capital, however there are plans to soon move it to Ramciel for a more centrally located capital. In 2010 President Salva Kiir Mayardit was elected president, with 93 percent of the vote (“South Sudan”). In July of 2015 it was decided by the parliament that President Mayardit’s four year term should be extended to an eight year one, in light of conflict within the country, and since the official constitution is not yet complete. As the transitional government stands now, it consists of the president, his cabinet and, a bicameral legislature. The president’s cabinet consists of 31 members, all appointed by the president, who serve similar roles as to those of the American presidential cabinet, such as “Minister of Internal Affairs,” and “Minister of Justice.” The bicameral legislature consists of “The National Legislative Assembly” and the “Council of States.” The legislature serves purposes such as approving appointments, or ratifying treaties. South Sudan’s judiciary consists of a Supreme Court, amongst smaller courts. The court system is a branch of the South Sudanese government, and is overseen by President Mayardit (“South Sudan”).

South Sudan is located in East-Central Africa, and borders the Central African Republic, The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, and Uganda. The country’s climate is tropical, consisting of both wet and dry seasons. 15 percent of South Sudan is comprised of the Sudd Wetlands, wetlands comprised of a 22,000 square mile swamp in the center of the country. At the edge of the wetlands lies the country’s equatorial forest, which becomes the countries jungle. The jungle rises to the Imatong mountains which line the border between South Sudan and Uganda. These mountains hold the country’s highest peak, Mount Kinyeti which reaches 10,456 feet from base to peak. The white Nile flows through the country, making the land fertile and good for agriculture, and its basin providing a home for many of the nomadic ethnic groups of the country. (“South Sudan”).

South Sudan’s population is more than 90 percent Christian-African, with a small Muslim-Arab minority. The country’s ethnicity is 35.8% percent Dinka (World Factbook). The Dinka are a transhumant ethnic group of pastoralist people who live primarily in the country’s savanna country (“Dinka”). Another 15.6 percent is made up of the Nuer people, cattle raising people who follow their herds through Sudan’s marshes and savanna (“Nuer”). The Dinka and Nuer ethnic groups are closely related, which can be heard in the similarities of their languages (“Nuer”). The two groups faced conflict of their own during the time of the Sudanese civil wars, and despite a peace agreement signed in 1999, continue to face major conflict in South Sudan today (“Dinka”). The remaining percentage is made up of various smaller ethnicities, such as Shilluk, Azande, Bari,and Acholi. The people of South Sudan are primarily very young, with over 67 percent of the population falling under the age of 25, and the median age of the country being only 17. The official language of South Sudan is English, however many languages are spoken and recognized within the country, such as the Arabic of the north, and the Nilotic languages of the Dinka, Nuer, and other ethnic groups that reside within the country (The World Factbook).

South Sudan’s economy is highly dependent upon the country’s rich mineral resources, specifically petroleum. South Sudan puts out about 600,000 barrels of oil a day, or 25,200,000 gallons. This enormous amount of petroleum accounts for 98 percent of the South Sudanese government’s revenue. It serves as the country’s main export, and accounts for 60 percent of South Sudan’s total GDP. With the fall of gas prices, Sudan’s economy suffers, due to this large dependence upon petroleum. Petroleum is a non-renewable resource, so the amount of petroleum the country is able to put out is expected to begin dwindling in the coming years, and stop completely by 2035 (“South Sudan Overview”). The country other mineral resources, such as as significant deposits of gold, silver, and zinc, however these deposits are largely untouched. 85 percent of South Sudan’s working population does not work for a wage, but instead work on farms and support themselves through what they produce themselves. This wageless work accounts for another 15 percent of the GDP. South Sudan uses the South Sudanese Pound (SSP), the value of which has inflated from 18.5 SSP on the US dollar, to almost 80 SSP on the US dollar, in less than a year’s time (“South Sudan Overview”).

South Sudan is facing many issues as a nation apart from just their economy right now. The most notable issue the country is currently facing is The South Sudanese Civil War. The conflict began in 2013, between President Salva Kiir Mayardit, and Vice President Riek Machar, who are members of the Dinka and Nuer ethnic groups, respectively, which have a long history of conflict . In 2013, Vice President Machar’s guards attacked President Mayardit guards, and a bloody battle ensued. President Mayardit accused Vice President Machar of attempting a coup. Machar denied this, insisting that Miir was only creating conflict, that didn’t really exist, within his own country in an attempt to draw attention away from his failings as the country’s president. Machar called for Mayardit’s resignation, however Mayardit refused, and removed Machar from his vice presidential office (“South Sudan President Salva Kiir in Profile”). The SPLM, which controls the South Sudanese government, and the SPLM in opposition, the branch of the SPLM that broke off to follow Machar, began fighting, and so the war began. Military forces from Uganda were deployed to fight at the side of the South Sudanese government, against the rebels, in 2014, and the United Nations placed peacekeepers within the country. At the beginning of 2014, a ceasefire agreement was met between the government and the rebels. This ceasefire agreement did not last long however, as fighting continued on, only to be briefly paused by several more ceasefire agreements. In 2015 the United Nations threatened both sides with UN sanctions if they weren’t to sign a peace agreement, and so the “Compromise Peace Agreement” was signed. As a part of this agreement, in 2016 Machar returned to South Sudan from which he had been exiled, and was reappointed to his post as Vice President of South Sudan. Fighting once again ensued in the capital city of Juba however, and Machar once again fled to Sudan, where he is currently still in exile. Fighting continues on in South Sudan today, having already killed more than 300,000 people (South Sudan: Slide Towards Civil War).

As a result of the ongoing civil war within South Sudan, the UN is reporting signs of a possible genocide. The genocide would be of the Nuer people, by the Dinka. The UN recently traveled to South Sudan for 10 days to check up on the nation, and found the Dinka supporters of President Mayardit killing the Nuer supporters of Machar in such great numbers that they believe if it is not already a genocide, it is likely to become one. One UN official actually stated that “The stage is set for another Rwanda-like genocide” (Keleman). As the warning signs of genocide are just now being seen, hopefully the nation will receive aid from other nations before it is thrown into a full on genocide, such as the one in Rwanda, which resulted in the deaths of as many as 2 million people.

The UN has also reported the occurrence of rape as a form of ethnic cleansing within South Sudan. According to a survey given by the UN to women in the nation's capital, 70 percent of women in Juba have experienced some sort of sexual assault since the civil war began in 2013. Several women have reported to the UN being gang banged by government soldiers, following fighting in Juba. The UN plans to gather evidence of the rapes so that legal action can be taken against the rapists (UN: Rape Used as Tool for Ethnic Cleansing).

South Sudan is also facing a hunger crisis, as about 3.6 million of its people experience food shortages. This means a doubling in the amount of hunger in South Sudan compared to last years reports. The number of hungry is on the rise still, and is expected to reach a total of 4.6 million experiencing food shortages by early 2017. A large cause of this increase in food shortages is the civil war taking place within the country, as it prevents many farmers from accessing their farms. As a country that relies very heavily upon producing it’s own food, as opposed to working for wages with which to buy food, this lack of access to farms is especially devastating. The civil war has also destroyed the South Sudanese economy, and cut off many trade routes with other countries, resulting in even more hunger for the Sudanese, as even those who do work for a wage cannot buy food. The UN recently reported that South Sudan is facing a “risk of famine” (Russell).

On top of all of its other challenges, South Sudan is facing the issue of overall poor health conditions. As the civil war wages on in South Sudan, one of the country’s last priorities is providing its people with basic primary healthcare services. This becomes an especially big issue in the case of maternal and child health care services. South Sudan currently holds the highest infant mortality rate in the world, as 102 of every 1,000 babies born alive die as infants, and 135 of every 1000 babies born alive die before the age of 5. Most of these children die from Malaria, Pneumonia, and diarrheal diseases. Prenatal care is incredibly rare, as only 23 percent of pregnant woman receive it. Additionally, only 3.5 percent of the population of South Sudan uses contraceptives, a number that has not increased since the birth of the country, and does not show any sign of increasing in the near future (“South Sudan”). South Sudan is classified by the United States Central Intelligence Agency as being “very high risk” for major infectious diseases. Some of the country’s most common disease include Malaria, Dengue Fever, hepatitis A and E, and Meningococcal Meningitis. The number one cause of death in South Sudan today is diarrheal diseases, diseases which are treated in the United States with over the counter medication (“South Sudan Overview”).

As South Sudan struggles to fix the political, economic, social, and health problems it is facing today, its history as a strong, powerful force cannot be forgotten. South Sudan today may not be the strong nation fighting for its independence that it once was, but it certainly can be again.