Mi/mp and Self-talk Practices in Physical Performance Enhancement

According to Weinberg & Gould (2007), mental skills training refers to “the systematic and consistent practice of mental or psychological skills for the purpose of enhancing performance, increasing enjoyment and/or achieving greater self-satisfaction”. Within the realm of mental skills training, there is a plethora of effective techniques which could be implemented within an athlete prevention. However, this paper will be focused on arguably the two most popular techniques applied in modern practice; Self-Talk and Mental Imagery/Mental Practice. Vealey et al. (1998) defined mental imagery as a process of internalised rehearsal strategies involving precise multi-sensory representation of the athletic experience while mental practice refers to a particular application of mental imagery in which performers practice in their heads or rehearse their skills symbolically before actually executing them.

Differently, self-talk has been defined as the expression of a syntactically recognizable internal position in which the sender of the message is also the intended received. This paper will provide a critical analysis and evaluation of the above skills by outlining the relevant key considerations to consider prior to implementing such, as well as providing a robust evidence basis for the level of effectiveness respectively. Moreover, it will seek to provide a comparative study between the two skills to provide an understanding of the similarities and paradoxical characteristics between them. Furthermore, an analysis of its suitability of the skills with a ‘what works best & for whom’ will be presented. Within this section, relevant case studies will be applied.

Throughout the paper, relevant models and theories will be consistently applied within each relevant section. Finally, a short conclusion will provide a holistic summary of the paper in its entirety.

Mental Imagery (MI) / Mental Practice (MP)

Prior to implementing an MI/MP intervention, it is critical to understand the many approaches and categories of MI/ MP to ensure the correct technique is being applied to the relevant context. According to Wraga & Kosslyn (2002), there are two approaches in defining mental imagery; 1) intuitive, the experience of ‘seeing’ with the mind's eye and 2) theoretical, a cognitive representation that gives rise to the experience of perception in the absence of the appropriate sensory input. It is also vital to gain an understanding of the types of mental imagery to ensure a successful athlete centred approach. According to Hassan et al. (2016) the types of imagery are as follows; 1) Visual; e.g. Imagining the movement of a visual form 2) Motor Imagery; imagining your own hand moving and 3) Kinaesthetic, imagining the feeling of your hand moving.

In order to successfully strategize for an individualistic MI intervention, one must factor in the nature and characteristics of the MI itself, the outcomes desired, the individual differences and finally its implementation (see fig 1.1). To optimize mental imagery the 12 recommendations outlined in figure 1.1 will maximize the effectiveness of mental imagery in a variety of settings and help minimize undesirable effects for the client groups. By focusing on multi-modal imagery with relevant perspective takes must be relevant to the skills e.g. external imagery with morpho kinetic tasks. Outlining the clear outcomes to each intervention in correlation with the client’s experience and preference with MP techniques e.g. First person perspective will ensure maximal adoption. To effectively implement a MP intervention, one must factor in five key components; 1) Time, 2) Perspectives, 3) Positive or Negative imagery, 4) Sensory Activation and 5) Activation. It is vital that the actions imagined, and the actual actions are working in the same time frame and in close correspondence, for example, mentally executing a free kick when preparing to kick the ball which is reflected by a study conducted by Munroe Chandler et al (2006) in studying cognitive imagery for soccer strategies. Determining the perspective, i.e. first vs third person, is critical as it requires both contextual intelligence and imagery ability. For example, according to Decay (1996) first person perspective relies on motor-kinaesthetic processing, more suitable for striking a golf ball than performing an intricate gymnastics routine. Outlining the purpose for imagery intervention is critical when deciding on whether it should be positive or negative. Negative imagery can be beneficial when developing a coping mechanism but otherwise positive imagery, with the correct physical technique should be adopted. By appealing to the appropriate senses, it helps develop a further understanding of the tactile feedback involved in skill execution and gaining further motor resonance, for example, imagining the weight of a golf club in your hands. This benefit of tactile feedback in motor acquisition can be seen within a study conducted by Lieberman and Breazeal in 2007 (Liberman & Breazeal, 2007).

A key consideration of that is critical, is one's imagery ability. It is vital to assess the athletes’ imagery ability as it impacts imagery effectiveness. Thus, measuring imagery ability can lead to more individualized and effective imagery intervention. Measuring can be achieved by administering the Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ -3) which appraises assesses visual (internal/external) imagery and kinaesthetic imagery. Additionally, the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire (VMIQ-2) which assesses the vividness of both visual and kinaesthetic imagery can be administered. By gaining a more in-depth knowledge of one's specific ability relevant to the key characteristics of imagery i.e. vividness, the level of clarity, realism or richness of a mental image, controllability, the degree to which one can manipulate or control a mental image and associated emotions, images may invoke feelings and physiological reactions, it further strengthens one’s intervention. According to Monroe-Chandler & Guerrero (2017), measuring an athlete's use of imagery highlights one’s frequency of a specific type of imagery and whilst highlighting changes from pre- to post-intervention. In order to measure this, the evidence-based inventories include the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ) which assesses the five functions of imagery; cognitive general, cognitive specific, motivational specific, motivational general-arousal, & motivational general mastery. Exercise Imagery Questionnaire (EIQ) and Exercise Imagery Questionnaire (EIQ) are also optional inventories which measure highly influential factors such as purpose for imagery as well as exercise self-efficacy and exercise routine imagery. By following the Fitts and Posner (1967) 3 phases of learning model is vital, and knowing which stage of learning e.g. cognitive, associative and autonomic the athlete is currently in. This influences the complexity and level of the intervention required whilst considering the contextual factors of the intervention e.g. time of season, environment or stage of injury as this this may dictate the emotional state of the participant which may affect their cognitive / emotional load. The average concentration cycle is approximately 15 minutes, thus planning short imagery intervention sessions in line with the mental load constraints of the client will ensure the optimal frequency of imagery training.

Self-Talk

Self-talk is a powerful and potentially a very beneficial skill for an individual to learn and adopt. It can benefit attentional focus, increased motivation, performance review, performance enhancement, skills acquisition, skill execution, breaking maladaptive habits and reinforcing adaptive habits. However, prior to implementing a self-talk intervention one must factor in several key considerations first. Securing the precise objectives for the intervention is vital as this dictates the strategy for the intervention. If the aim is to diminish self-doubt and improve performance, positive self-talk is recommended as this supports a positive self-concept and increases self-confidence which benefits self-efficacy and according to Stretcher et al (1986), self-efficacy is vital when achieving human behavioural change and skill acquisition. By leveraging positive self-talk, it also supports increased attentional focus. Thus, refining the direct attention and attentional focus specific to the task increases the participants ability to execute. For example, by directing the attentional focus on external processes it allows the motor system to naturally self-organise as the participant is focused on the movement effect thus indicating a higher degree of automaticity and less conscious interference within a technique driven task e.g. Balancing. Positive self-talk can also enhance emotional control that can hinder performance such as high levels of anxiety. According to Craft et al (2003) high levels of anxiety have a negative effect of performance, therefore self-talk can have a direct positive impact on sport performance due to the improved ability within emotional regulation and control. Leveraging negative self-talk has proven to be maladaptive to performance as it promotes; Irrelevant thought, Increased fatigue, Increased levels of worry and disengagement. This is reflected in a study conducted by Raalt et al (2000), where players who adopted negative self-talk correlated with reduction in points attained.

A critical aspect to consider is which category of self-talk is applicable to the relevant context for optimal performance. There are two types of self-talk; 1) Instructional and 2) Motivational and both have independent benefits for performance. Leverage instructional self-talk is highly beneficial when facilitating performance for tasks that require sustained concentration, planning actions and specific motor movements. Instructional self-talk can be used for a novice attaining a new skill, which is seen in a study by Anderson et al (1999) by teaching grade three students the overhand throw by utilizing instructional self-talk. Instructional self-talk can also be utilized in elite performance when to re-iterate a process to help regulate thoughts instead of focusing on movement kinematics. Leveraging motivational self-talk has a direct impact on confidence enhancement, increased effort levels and improved positive mindset. Generally motivational self-talk is utilized toward tasks surrounding muscular strength and endurance. Outlined in a study conducted by Todd et al (2009) found that motivational self-talk was a superior method when performing the vertical jump and Mellalieu and Hamilton (2008) outlined that motivational self-talk was more effective within rugby league tackling and long-distance running.

An additional consideration to be considered is the valence/overtness is which the self-talk statement i.e. emotional tone. This emotional tone will categorize the type of self-talk whether it is positive, negative, natural, motivational or instructional. It is critical to ensure the relevant valence is in correlation with the correct message e.g. high energy and encouraging statements for motivational self-talk such as “Keep going, your stronger than ever!”. Studies conducted by Van Raalte et al (2016) outlines a categorization approach that uses two separate systems. System 1 being rapid autonomous processing and ‘gut’ feelings whereby system 2 involves a more cognitive effort and is at a slower more thought out pace.

Reviewing the grammatical form of the self-talk statement is vital, forming statements such as “I will” rather than “Will I?” have had proven benefits in performance, this can be seen in studies by Puchalsak-Wasyl (2014). Also utilizing collective terms such as “we” rather than “I” has a direct impact on self-efficacy in a performance-based activity.

A key consideration is whether the self-talk intervention is assigned or self-selected.

Assigned self-talk statement are useful for a collective group working towards a common goal e.g. ‘SOS’, Same old Standards for the Senior Clare Hurling Team. Whereby self-selected statement allows for more specific statements that are focused on the individual’s objectives or desired outcomes e.g. Technique execution for free kicks.

Conclusion

In conclusion I certainly believe that the adaptation of psychological skills can improve performance. However, it is critical for the practioner to understand and appreciate that both MI/MP and self-Talk are valuable to the participants performance, when applied in the correct context. It is unwise to suggest that one is more influential than the over, as people are individualistic in nature, as are there psychological needs and to be oblivious to that would be ill wise, substandard and somewhat unethical.

Within each skill there is vital sub categories which may provide great benefit to the intervention or great hindrance. Central to applying psychological skills is gaining an in-depth understanding of the participants experience/ preferences, the contextual environment he/she is performing in. This provides essential information to structure your intervention which is based on proven robust foundation of evidence. Appreciating the importance and influence that MI/MP and/or Self Talk can have on performance is the first objective, but it is critical to be able to measure at baseline and post intervention. Whether it is utilizing proven inventories such as the MIQ or self-recording and appropriate feedback for self-talk.

In summary, both MI/MP and Self-Talk can provide competitive edge and performance enhancement and is dependent on the situation. However physical practice is at the core of performance enhance but in in order to achieve optimal performance a combination of Relevant Mental Practice + Relevant Physical Practice = Optimal performance.