Importance of Citizenship Tests in Western Europe

Introduction

Most Western European states have introduced integration tests in recent years, highlighting the importance of citizenship. In the working paper, three main approaches are presented, dealing with the citizenship tests: scholars who are critical and examine the context or effects of those tests, scholars.

Debating the Liberal Nature of Citizenship Tests

The first group of scholars have concerns in a liberal point of view but not have a clear-cut answer to the question of whether the citizenship tests in general are liberal or not. The author who initiates the discussion is Joppke who emphasis on the content of the citizenship tests and make a clear distinction between what kind of questions might be asked and should not be asked in a liberal environment. According to him, “to ask for knowledge of the principles and procedures of liberal democracies is an incontrovertibly legitimate core component of all citizenship tests” (1). He does not see anything wrong with assessing cognitive knowledge of applicants; therefore, justifies the questions concerning a country’s history, culture and institutions. However, what is unacceptable from a liberalist point of view according to him is that to ask for “the true values or beliefs of an individual, even if they pertain to the rules of liberal democracy” (2). Since liberalism should tolerate every worldview as long as people behave according to law, inner dispositions” of future citizens should not have to do anything with their legal status.

As opposed to idea of Joppke’s, which regards the content of the citizenship test as the most important question of debate, some scholars such as Groenendijk and Oers argue that effects of these tests should also be taken into account. They suggest that even if the content of the tests is liberal, tests still may produce exclusionary results for lower-educated and/or socio-economically disadvantageous group of immigrants. To understand better, the case of Dutch test should be clarified. Studies reveal that establishment of the test caused a 50% decrease in the naturalization process for several reasons. First of all, immigrants have to pay high exam fee which puts up a barrier for less-well-off immigrants. Secondly, the government of the Netherlands does not provide any materials and advocate their action by saying you cannot to be Dutch, you have to feel it. Thirdly, applicants cannot get information other than Dutch language, even in English. Therefore, it is clear that these practices pose serious obstacles in the way of full citizenship especially for those who are “lower-educated immigrants and therefore lack the financial means” (10). These are few examples how a test can also be exclusionary independent from its content.

Liav Orgad also may be counted as one of the authors who find implication and implementation of citizenship tests illiberal. Apart from the same concerns about content of the tests, that is to say finding wrong to question moral judgements of applicants, he draws attention to several important points. One of them is “paradox of liberalism”. He explains as “liberal states in order to preserve what they perceive as a liberal regime, are resorting to illiberal means to guarantee liberal values” (21). And the example is the Netherlands again. Some of the questions are designed to exclude some beliefs on the grounds that they are un-Dutch; however, as Orgad stated ideological exclusion is in itself illiberal and therefore, un-Dutch. I think another important remark he did is that the distinction between immigration law and domestic law. He argues that it is not the business of immigration law to regulate the area of domestic law. Another way of saying is that, the possibility of breaking a law should not be a barrier in the way of becoming citizens. Sanctions exist in case of citizens break the law.

Importance of Citizenship Tests and Inclusion

The second group of academics support the view that naturalization tests, independent from their context, are illiberal. In order to support this argument, Dora Kostakopoulou examines the tests in general, a ‘zooming out’ exercise, in order to find out whether they meet the instructions of liberalism or not. To begin with, she defines liberalism as an ideology with the core principle of equal treatment of individuals and freedom from state intervention. And she concludes that

In addition to Dora Kostakopoulou, Jospeh Carens also argues that all citizenship tests are not liberal by saying “the most liberal citizenship test is none at all”. He lays emphasis on several notions such as the context and cost of the tests, accessibility of information, whether or not applicants are allowed to take the exam, what the aims of such tests are, which groups are excluded or who is in favor of such tests. His argumentation is based on the idea that long term settlement of immigrants brings about membership in the society and state has no right to deny their rights.

The last group of scholars support naturalization test from different perspectives. Amanda Klekowski von Koppenfels finds groundless to label all citizenship tests as illiberal and exclusionary. She certainly against the exclusionary practices such as infamous Baden-Württemberg “Gesprachsletifaden”, but she also argues that citizenship tests have a potential to be much more inclusionary like the example of United States which is a genuinely welcoming practice.

Conclusion

Randall Hansen has even more sympathetic view towards tests. He defends the view that citizenship tests are completely reasonable for several reasons. First of all, he points out the fact that citizenship comes with one major privilege, namely the right to vote. And he suggests that the state has every right to expect from its future citizens, who will have a say to future of the country, to be knowledgeable about that country’s history, institutions, and culture. In parallel with this argument, he regards the whole naturalization process as equivalent to education system which should provide information about political system and cultural practices of the country.   

Works Cited

1. Joppke, Christian. 'The Content of Citizenship Tests: How Liberal?' Citizenship Studies, vol. 16, no. 2, 2012, pp. 179-193.

2. Groenendijk, Kees, and Monique Kremer. 'A Touchstone of Belonging or a Barrier to Entry? The Role of Civic Integration Policies for Labour Market Integration.' International Migration, vol. 50, no. 3, 2012, pp. 36-53.

3. Orgad, Liav. 'The Cultural Defense of Nations: A Liberal Theory of Majority Rights.' Oxford University Press, 2015.

4. Kostakopoulou, Dora. 'The Future Governance of Citizenship.' Cambridge University Press, 2008.

5. Carens, Joseph H. 'The Ethics of Immigration.' Oxford University Press, 2013.

6. Klekowski von Koppenfels, Amanda. 'Migrants or Expatriates? Americans in Europe.' Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.

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7. Hansen, Randall. 'Citizenship and Immigration in Post-war Britain: The Institutional Origins of a Multicultural Nation.' Oxford University Press, 2000.