The Role of The Roman Senate in The Disintegration of Relations Between Caesar and Pompey

This paper will examine the role of the Roman Senate in the disintegration of relations between Julius Caesar and Pompeius Magnus (Pompey). In 60 BCE, Caesar and Pompey joined with Marcus Crassus to form an alliance designed to pool their talents in order to take over the senate and gain political control over Rome. The alliance, known as the First Triumvirate, depended upon the cooperation and mutual trust of the three men, if they were to succeed in bending the senate to their will. In 59 BCE, Pompey married Caesar’s daughter, Julia, thus further strengthening the association between the two men. Only five years later, however, Caesar and Pompey were locked in a bitter contest for power. The senate, which the First Triumvirate had sought to manipulate, had managed to drive a wedge between the two men.

Pompey and Caesar had the same goal in life, to be the most powerful man in Rome, but they took different paths to establish that power. Pompey was born into a wealthy family, and his father was a member of the senate. At seventeen years old, he served under his father in the military. When Pompey’s father died, Pompey was only twenty years old, leaving Pompey with a large amount of property and the allegiance of the men serving his father. Pompey used the military he inherited to gain favor among powerful politicians in Rome. Julius Caesar was not born into a family that could offer him the same immediate advantages. The Julii were noble, but no longer had much political power. Caesar, like Pompey, also lost his father at a early age, but Caesar’s father did not have property or loyal soldiers to leave to his son. Caesar married Cornelia, whose father, Cinna, was a consul for four years. Caesar saw the marriage into a politically powerful family as a path to political glory. Both Caesar and Pompey eventually held prominent political offices, and their armies become factors in the Senate’s decision of who to back to bring peace to the streets of Rome.

Rome had been involved in Civil Wars for many years before Pompey and Caesar warred against each other. One civil war in particular played a large role in shaping the life of Pompey and Caesar: Sulla’s Second Civil War. The war began in 83 BCE. The roman senate had two large parties that continuously waged war on each other. Lucius Sulla was one of the leaders, he moved against his enemy Lucius Cinna initially, but now he was warring with Gaius Marius the younger. Marius, side were known as the populares, or the populars, they often looked out for the best interest of the Roman plebeians. Sulla’s side was known as the Causa Nobilitatis, or the nobility. Sulla and his followers were the optimate senators, they were old school and preferred only the changes that they thought would improve Rome for the nobles. Sulla had been previously defeated and exiled from Rome. Upon the news that Cinna had died, he built up his own army and then gained assistance from Crassus and Pompey. Pompey had a legion of soldiers which he put under Sulla’s control, combined their men totaled nearly fifty thousand. Sulla led the men toward Rome and encountered opposing forces at Mount Tifata. While the opposing side had a large number of soldiers they were dispersed elsewhere at the time of the attack. Sulla and Pompey were easily able to win this battle, losing only seventy men, compared to six thousand dead on the side of Marius. The Marians were forced to retreat further towards Capua at the end of the fight. Sulla was easily able to capture Rome, without a fight, after the Marians flee when they hear he is coming. One of the people forced to flee was Julius Caesar, who had married the daughter of Lucius Cinna, a leading member of the Populars at the time of his death.

The Julian family had been split on what senatorial faction to support during the previous civil wars. Some like Julius Caesar were supporters of the popular faction that had been led by Marius. Other Julians were in support of the the optimates, and had been killed by Marius only a couple of years previously. As the new head of his house, Julius father passed slightly prior, he could have claimed he was part of the Julians that supported the Sulla led optimates, but rather he further confined himself to the side of the Populars. He broke off his intended marriage from birth, to marry Cornelia. Cornelia’s father was Cinna, an upstanding member of the populars. Upon his return to Rome, Sulla posted a list of names in the Forum. Any man whose name appeared on the list was seen as a threat by Sulla, he put a bounty on their heads and declared their property relinquished. Julius Caesar’s name did not appear on the list, he was not important enough at the time to be a threat, but Sulla was aware of who Caesar was. He summoned Caesar to a meeting with him, and told him he should not have married Cornelia and that he should divorce her. Caesar did not and began his life in hiding from the optimates. Sulla never outlawed the young Caesar and in fact was impressed by the young man during their meeting. After Caesar ran, one of his uncles, an Optimate, persuaded Sulla to spare him, Sulla said “You may have his life, only bear in mind that one day this man may destroy the cause that you and I uphold. For this Caesar is worth six of Marius.”

Caesar knew that he wanted political power and started on a path the find such power. He joined the military hoping it would be a way to raise his credibility and power. He went to Asia to fight under a governor that was a supporter of Sulla. Caesar was able to gain the confidence and trust of his commander rapidly, and served as his emissary. Following the Siege of Mitylene, Caesar’s commanding officer awarded him with a civic crown, which was typically awarded to those who have saved the life of a Roman citizen. At the time Sulla had a lack of Senators, due to deaths of the Civil War. According to Livy, Sulla made all men who had been awarded a civic crown, a senator. Following Sulla’s death in 78, Caesar returned to Rome and participated in prosecuting a provincial governor, which was common for young Romans looking to rise the ranks in politics. Caesar lost the case, but performed admirably and became known as one of Rome’s greatest public speakers.

Under the Sullan constitution, priests were once again given the responsibility to choose the members of the priesthood, Caesar was seen as a good choice because he had compromised with Sulla’s decisions for the past decade. Caesar was elected to the college of pontifices. Caesar quickly proved the members of the priesthood wrong as he started pushing the ideas of the popular senators. By, 71 Caesar was the military tribune and had came into contact with Pompey, who was fresh off of military successes in Spain and was a leading candidate for the consulship. Caesar and Pompey had began one of the most powerful relationships in Roman history.

The optimates had been able to keep majority control of the Senate for many years following Sulla’s conquest. Then Caesar and Pompey, get involved and look to further their agenda past that of what the optimate senators desire. There were four leaders who the optimates considered populars. Two of those leaders were Caesar and Pompey. Pompey was the one that the optimates disliked and dreaded the most. Pompey had used his loyal military to gain power first through Sulla, and since in other military operations. Pompey became the consul in the year 70, following his consulship the optimates tried to remove Pompey from the sphere of political influence. Pompey was able to keep his interests in the senate through his tribunes. By the year 66, Pompey had a prominent member of the senate, Cicero, trying to gain his favor. Pompey had gained the favor of knights in Asia and Cicero gave Pompey military command against the Mithridates. Pompey had so much power that he convinced Cicero to defend a popular, Manilius. His high amount of power instilled fear in the optimate senators. Unlike Pompey, Caesar had the pedigree of a popular. He had the connection to the Marians that no other leader could claim. He pushed for popular laws by glorifying Marius, who his family was a supporter of during Marius’ lifetime. Caesar was able to pass a bill that made it possible for the public to elect priests again, this increased Caesar’s popularity even more and he won office as Pontifex Maximus. This victory humiliated the optimates. Together Caesar and Pompey were able to turn the public opinion against that of the optimates.

In 59 BCE, Caesar returned from his governorship in Spain, with a consulship in mind. He was being held back by a law that required he be in person to declare his desire to become the consul. Caesar had to give up his triumph, by coming to Rome to announce his candidacy. He was a strong candidate and it was likely that he would win. Caesar had the backing of the Marians, Pompey and his men, plus money to bribe people with. Caesar won consulship alongside of an optimate, Bibulus. The optimates were still in control of the senate, leading to a partnership known as the First Triumvirate, between Caesar, Pompey, and another powerful man, Crassus. Caesar would present bills that would help the two men and himself advance their own agendas. The First Triumvirate would incorporate a strategy that involved Caesar taking the law to the public, Crassus and Pompey would then publicly support the bill. If someone in the senate were set to speak out against the bill, force was used, usually by Pompey’s soldiers, to prevent them. The optimates tried everything they could to stop Caesar from passing more laws, but combined with Pompey they had too much power, often passing bills quickly by threats of violence. The only man who tried to stop Caesar was Cato, and Caesar had him arrested. Caesar only let Cato go because the onlookers did not support Cato’s arrest and it became clear that Cato would not appeal the arrest. The optimate led senate had passed a bill that required consuls to accept insignificant roles after their consulship, Caesar was able to pass a bill changing this through one of his tribunes. Caesar received a five year command in Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum. Pompey was even able to coerce the senate into giving Caesar Transalpine Gaul shortly thereafter. Pompey convinced the senate that action in Gaul would be likely because the Helvetti. Pompey told the senate it would be better to have one man as governor of Transalpine and Cisalpine Gaul, rather than find another man to rule over Transalpine Gaul and try to work together with Caesar.

Caesar kept intruding into political affairs early in 58 BCE, until it seemed likely the Roman people would turn on him, then he made his move to Gaul. In Gaul, Caesar would be able to gain a powerful, personal army. He would also remain close enough to Rome to influence political affairs if necessary. Almost immediately when Caesar went to Gaul he was given a chance to show his power and military. Caesar trained two new legions of men from Cisalpine, and destroyed the bridge the Helvetti needed to cross to migrate. He defeated the Helvetti in battle and they became an ally of the Romans. During his time in Gaul, Caesar showed his ambition and military ability. He tried to invade Britain, an area the Romans never controlled before, although Caesar was not successful due to poor harvest, he was able to control some land in the south for some time before winter. Caesar also faced unrest from the Germanic tribes several times during his stay in Gaul, each time he was able to fight off their advances and return the area to contentment. Caesar was growing his popularity in Rome during this time, he was sending back spoils from his victories to Rome. This wealth was used to grow his army and to bribe important members of Rome. This was also a great practice run to perfect the army he was growing.

While Caesar was in Gaul, Pompey remained in Rome and found himself partnering with optimates. Senators were often making suggestions to Pompey trying to align themselves with him. Some suggested he break his bond with Caesar, while he in Gaul, by divorcing Julia, Caesar’s daughter. Pompey does not associate himself with those senators though, rather he joins another group of senators, that are pushing to end the exile of Cicero. Pompey had previously partnered with Cicero, and thus felt it a good idea to help him return to Rome. Pompey and a large force of his soldiers, attended to the forum accompanying the brother of Cicero and were able to pass the law calling for Cicero’s return. Cicero was able to use his relationship with Pompey to repair Pompey’s relationship with the senate. Pompey was then placed in charge of all ports and trading centers. This placement gave him the power to choose the distribution of foods. Pompey and Crassus would meet with Caesar at Luca to discuss Pompey and Crassus becoming the consuls in 55 BCE. Caesar agreed to send a large number of his men to Rome to vote for them under the understanding that when elected Pompey and Crassus were to extend his command over Gaul and Illycrium for another five years. Leaders in Rome were not happy with this, but once again only Cato was willing to stand up and challenge it. Through force and intimidation, Crassus and Pompey became the consuls for 55 BCE. They awarded Caesar his extension in Gaul and got themselves provinces to command. Crassus went to Syria where he would die and Pompey got Africa and Spain. Pompey did not go to his provinces, and spent his time in Rome with his wife. Not long after, during childbirth Pompey lost his wife Julia. This broke the bond between Caesar and Pompey.

In the following years Rome would become increasingly violent and be on the brink of Civil War. In 53 BCE it was suggested that Pompey be made a sole consul in a dictator like role to restore peace. It did not happen that year, but the following year in 52 war came close to happening when one man, Milo, running for consul had his opponent Clodius killed. Pompey would then become the sole consul of Rome, with the help of a former enemy Cato at his side. Pompey took advantage of being sole consul and passed laws that give him more power and money for soldiers for his province. This angered some, who were in support of Caesar. They argued that Caesar was also fighting for the empire and deserved the same rewards and payments as Pompey.

Caesar managed to stay close to Rome, and would send his soldiers to vote for him, and he had several members of the senate bribed. Caesar desired a consulship or extension in Gaul, but he could not return to Rome as long as he still had his army. Pompey saw the control Caesar was gaining over high ranking Romans and became worried. Pompey requested Caesar return any soldiers that he had loaned him, some of these officers told Pompey that Caesar was not the idol of Caesar’s army, but Pompey was. The officers convinced Pompey that Caesar was not a threat. Caesar and Pompey were no longer any use to each other, but the senate was divided on who to support.

Both men wanted the other stripped of their army, and could not reach an agreement on what should be done. The senators could not reach an agreement either, but Caesar was due to out of Gaul by November of 50 BCE. Early in 49 BCE Caesar became an enemy of the state because he remained in Gaul Caesar felt wronged and gathered his army to cross the Rubicon knowing it would spark another war. “Let the die be cast” shouted Caesar and his army crossed the Rubicon officially sparking his war with Rome. The optimate senators turned to Pompey, because he had the best army they could think of, to defend Rome from Caesar. The initial plan was for Pompey and his men to defend the city of Rome, but he found it impossible to track Caesar’s movements. Pompey and the optimate senators were forced to flee Rome after their last ditch deal was declined by Caesar as he saw it unfair. Caesar would go on to not only win this war, but he would become the closest thing Rome had seen to an emperor since the Republic had begun.

The senate played a large role in the development of Pompey and Caesar as powerful men. Both Caesar and Pompey were seen as populars and the optimate senate forced them to work together to achieve power and money. Without each others help it is unlikely either reaches the power necessary to be a sole consul, or have the military power and money to split the senate between them. The optimates viewed Pompey as the lesser of two evils and decided to follow him, while other senators were bought or persuaded by Caesar. Had the senate reached an agreement this civil war would not have occured when it did.